Descriptive Meteorology

PrefaceIntroduction I. General Outline II. Definitions of the Meteorological Elements A. Temperature B. Atmospheric Pressure C. Wind D. Humidity E. Condensation Forms F. Sunshine G. Visibility H. Ceiling I. Optical Phenomena J. Electrical PhenomenaChapter I. The Composition and the Vertical Extent of the Atmosphere I. The Composition of the Lower Atmosphere II. The Composition of the Upper Atmosphere III. Hydrostatic Equilibrium IV. The Equation of State and the Hypsometric Formula V. Practical Applications of the Hypsometric Formula A. The Determination of the Total Pressure and of the Composition of the Upper Atmosphere at Great Heights B. The Reduction of Atmospheric Pressure to Sea Level C. The Measurement of Elevation-Altimetry Problems: I. Hypsometry II. AltimetryChapter II. Adiabetic Processes and the Vertical Stability of the Atmosphere I. Introductory Remarks II. The Adiabatic Relationship Between Temperature and Pressure in Dry Air III. The Dry Adiabatic Rate of Change of Temperature with Elevation IV. The Effect of Water Vapor on the Dry Adiabatic Relationship A. Unsaturated Conditions B. Saturated Conditions V. The Dependence of the Vertical Stability of the Atmosphere on the Temperature Lapse Rate A. Lapse Rate Definitions B. Thermodynamic Significance of the Lapse Rate C. Stable Equilibrium D. Conditionally Unstable (Also Called Conditionally Stable) Equilibrium E. Neutral Equilibrium F. Unstable Equilibrium G. Auto-Convective Instability (No Equilibrium) VI. The Adiabatic and Pseudoadiabatic Diagrams A. The Representation of Atmospheric Conditions on the Adiabatic Diagram B. Uses of the Dry Adiabatic Diagram C. The Representation of Atmospheric Conditions on the Pseudoadiabatic Diagram D. Uses of the Pseudoadiabatic Diagram Problems: The Adiabatic DiagramChapter III. The Heat Balance of the Atmosphere and the Explanation of the Observed Temperature Distribution I. Heating and Cooling of the Atmosphere A. The Transfer of Heat by Radiational Processes B. The Transfer of Heat and Other Elements by Molecular and by Turbulent Conduction C. The Transfer of Latent Heat in the Form of Water Vapor II. The Heat Balance of the Atmosphere A. The Nature of the Heat Balance B. The Determination of the Solar Constant C. The Disposition of Insolational Energy D. The Further Disposition of the Effective Insolational Energy E. The Latitudinal Distribution of Heating and Cooling III. The Distribution of Temperature in the Earth's Atmosphere A. Temperature Distribution at the Ground B. Distribution of Temperature in the Upper Atmosphere Problems: RadiationChapter IV. Evaporation and Condensation in the Atmosphere I. Evaporation in the Atmosphere A. Rate of Evaporation into Still Air B. The Effect of Wind on the Rate of Evaporation II. Condensation in the Atmosphere A. The Physical Basis of Atmospheric Condensation B. The Meteorological Basis of Atmospheric Condensation III. The Condensation Forms A. Hydrometeors of the Stratiform Type B. Hydometeors of the Limited Convective Type C. Hydrometeors of the Convective Type (Unlimited) Problems: Evaporation and CondensationChapter V. Wind Velocity in the Atmosphere I. The Pressure Gradient Force II. The Horizontal Deflecting Force due to the Earth's Rotation III. The Frictional Force IV. The Geostrophic Wind Velocity V. Nongeostrophic Winds A. The Relationship Between the Geostrophic Deviation and the Acceleration of the Air Particle B. The Gradient Wind C.