Essential Environmental Science
Methods and Techniques
1st Edition
Published on 2. September 2003
544 pages
978-0-203-43554-0 (ISBN)
Description
Essential Environmental Science brings together within a single volume the vast range of techniques, methods and basic tools necessary for the study of the environment.
Environmental science has a massive area of operation, utilising the tools from a plethora of traditional sciences and social sciences. This practical manual draws on contributions from leading experts in each field, to present both general and specific environmental methods and techniques within a unique interdisciplinary environmental perspective.
Essential Environmental Science offers an invaluable reference source for environmental study in both the laboratory and in the field.
Environmental science has a massive area of operation, utilising the tools from a plethora of traditional sciences and social sciences. This practical manual draws on contributions from leading experts in each field, to present both general and specific environmental methods and techniques within a unique interdisciplinary environmental perspective.
Essential Environmental Science offers an invaluable reference source for environmental study in both the laboratory and in the field.
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Content
- Intro
- Essential Environmental Science
- Copyright
- Contents
- List of figures
- List of tables
- List of boxes
- Preface
- Acknowledgements
- Chapter 1 The good scientist
- 1.1 Laboratory and fieldwork logbooks
- 1.2 Designing the experiment
- 1.3 Predicting the answer
- 1.4 Significant figures and scientific notation
- 1.5 Errors and imprecision
- 1.6 Precision and accuracy
- 1.7 Quantifying error
- a Addition and subtraction
- b Multiplication and division
- c Exponents
- 1.8 Units and units calculus
- a Units
- b SI units
- c Units calculus
- 1.9 Data types
- a Nominal data
- b Ordinal data
- c Interval data
- d Ratio data
- 1.10 Concluding comments
- 1.11 Further reading
- Chapter 2 Sampling
- 2.1 Introduction
- 2.2 Sampling in the social environmental sciences
- a Random sample selection
- i Simple random sampling
- ii Systematic random sampling
- iii Stratified random sampling
- iv Cluster sampling
- b Non-random sample selection
- i Snowballing
- ii Quota sampling
- iii Accidental sampling
- 2.3 Sampling in the physical environmental sciences
- a Sampling in areas
- b Sampling in time
- 2.4 Sampling and preparation procedures for chemical analysis
- a Introduction
- b The plan of action
- c Site selection and description
- d Soils
- i Methods
- ii Drying and storage of samples
- iii Sample preparation
- e Water samples
- f Sediment samples
- g Geological samples
- h Preparation of plant samples
- i General preparation
- ii Sub-sampling in the laboratory
- 2.5 Sample size
- 2.6 Concluding comments
- 2.7 Further reading
- Chapter 3 Use of statistics
- 3.1 Describing data
- a Definitions
- b Measures of average
- i Mean
- ii Median
- iii Mode
- c Skewness
- d Measures of variability
- e Standard deviation
- 3.2 Probability
- a Simple probabilities
- b Compound probabilities
- c Probability distributions
- 3.3 Data distributions
- a The normal distribution
- i Standard scores
- ii Properties of the normal distribution
- iii Tables of the normal distribution
- iv Testing for normality
- b Log-normal distribution
- c The Poisson distribution
- 3.4 Hypothesis testing
- a Populations and samples
- b The null hypothesis
- c Level of significance
- 3.5 Testing differences between means (t test)
- a The sampling distribution of differences
- b Testing for difference
- c Limitation of the t test
- d Other t tests
- e One- and two-tailed tests
- f Non-parametric comparable tests
- i Mann-Whitney test
- ii Wilcoxon test
- g Analysis of variance
- 3.6 Differences between distributions (chi square test)
- a The basic test
- b Testing associations between variables
- c The case of one degree of freedom: Yates's correction
- d Summary of rules for the chi square test
- 3.7 Correlation and regression
- a The strength of a relationship
- i The correlation coefficient (r)
- ii Coefficient of determination (r2)
- iii Testing the significance of r
- iv Correlation and causation
- v Spearman's rank correlation
- b Regression
- i The regression equation
- ii X and Y: which is which?
- iii The line of best fit
- iv Residuals from regression
- v Prediction
- 3.8 Non-linear relationships
- a Regression with double logarithms
- b Power function relationships
- c Exponential relationships
- 3.9 Multiple regression and correlation
- i Calculation of coefficients multiple regression
- ii Interpretation of coefficients in multiple regression
- iii Multiple regression with more than two independent variables
- iv Transformation of variables
- b Multiple correlation
- 3.10 Further statistics
- 3.11 Concluding comments
- 3.12 Further reading
- Chapter 4 Surveying
- 4.1 Introduction
- 4.2 Basic surveying methods
- a Introduction
- b Point location
- i Radial line and distance method
- ii Resection
- iii Traverse methods
- iv Offset method
- c Height measurement
- i From vertical angle measurement
- 4.3 Organisation and planning of a survey
- a Introduction
- b Basic requirements of a survey
- i Primary planning considerations
- ii Secondary planning requirements
- c Booking of data
- d Permissible errors
- e Treatment of errors
- f Provision of checks
- 4.4 Instruments
- a Introduction
- b Measurement of horizontal angles: compasses
- i Prismatic compass
- ii Monocular compass
- iii Tripod mounted compass
- c The theodolite
- d Other instruments for vertical angle measurement
- i Abney level
- ii Indian clinometer
- e The surveyor's level
- i Tachymetry
- ii Mapping with a level
- iii Collimation errors
- iv Calibrating a level
- v Booking of levelling data
- f Distance measurement
- i Tapes and chains
- ii Catenary taping
- iii Subtense bar methods
- iv Electromagnetic distance measurement (EDM)
- g Total stations
- h The plane table
- 4.5 Adjustment of errors
- a Introduction
- b Distribution of angles in a triangle
- c Three point resection: graphical adjustment of triangles of error
- i Adjustment of errors when plotting on a map
- ii Adjustment of errors when positioning a point in the field
- d Graphical adjustment of traverses
- e Numerical adjustment of traverses
- 4.6 Construction of maps and plans
- a General information
- b Mapping using chain and offsets
- c Mapping using a plane table
- d Other mapping methods
- i Radial line and distance method
- ii Determining the cross-section of a river
- iii Determining the longstream slope of a river
- 4.7 Concluding comments
- 4.8 Further reading
- Chapter 5 General laboratory equipment and techniques
- 5.1 Tools of the trade
- a General equipment
- i Personal equipment
- ii The bench environment
- b General glassware
- c Volumetric glassware
- i Volumetric flasks
- ii Burettes
- iii Pipettes
- 5.2 Standard chemical techniques
- a Heating
- b Filtration and centrifugation
- c Weighing
- i Top pan balance
- ii Analytical balance
- iii Calibrating volumetric glassware
- d Quantitative transfer
- e pH measurements
- f Titrations
- 5.3 Analytical tools
- a Atomic spectroscopy
- b Spectrophotometry
- c Chromatography
- d Calibration
- i Serial solution
- ii Absolute standards
- iii Matrix matching
- e Reference materials
- 5.4 Concluding comments
- 5.5 Further reading
- Chapter 6 Soils
- 6.1 Physical properties of soils and field methods
- a Soil structure
- i Soil pits
- ii Soil logging
- b Soil quality
- i Measurement of soil life and respiration
- ii Soil texture and composition
- iii Soil bulk density
- iv Soil texture
- v Soil pH
- vi Soil strength - cone penetrometers
- vii Natural and agricultural soils
- c Field diagnosis of soil degradation
- i Recognising the symptoms of soil erosion
- 6.2 Chemical methods
- a Introduction
- b Moisture
- i Loss on drying
- ii Loss on ignition
- c Carbon
- i Combustion
- ii Dichromate oxidation
- iii Extractable organic carbon
- iv Carbonate
- d Major and trace elements
- i Extractions
- ii Partial digestion
- iii In-situ oxidation: concentrated nitric and sulfuric acid mixtures
- iv Complete acid digestion
- e Agricultural soils
- i Organic and total nitrogen
- ii Phosphorus
- iii Potassium
- f Others
- i Chloride
- ii Sulfate
- g Field methods
- 6.3 Concluding comments
- 6.4 Further reading
- Chapter 7 Waters
- 7.1 Introduction
- 7.2 The hydrological cycle
- 7.3 Physical parameters of surface waters
- a Determination of flow velocity
- b Determination of flow rate
- c The flood hydrograph
- 7.4 Groundwaters
- a Introduction
- i Groundwater hydraulics and flow
- ii Aquifer characteristics
- b Abstraction of groundwater
- c Pumping tests
- 7.5 Water quality
- a General parameters
- b Pollutant organics
- i Biological or biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
- ii Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
- iii Total organic carbon (TOC)
- iv Relationship between BOD, COD and TOC
- v Trace organic pollutants
- c Metals
- d Nitrate, nitrite, ammonia
- 7.6 Estuarine waters
- a Salinity as a conservative tracer of seawater
- b Estuarine sampling
- 7.7 Marine waters
- 7.8 Concluding comments
- 7.9 Further reading
- Chapter 8 Ecological fieldwork methods
- 8.1 Introduction
- 8.2 Planning fieldwork
- a Desk study
- b Levels of survey
- i Phase I habitat survey
- ii Phase II survey
- iii Phase III survey
- 8.3 Vegetation sampling
- a Quadrat sampling
- i Frequency
- ii Percentage cover
- iii Density
- b Transect sampling
- c Plotless sampling
- i Point centred quarter method
- ii Nearest individual method
- iii Nearest neighbour method
- iv Random pairs method
- d Age of trees
- 8.4 Faunal fieldwork
- a Small mammals
- i Grid system
- ii Linear system
- b Birds
- i Point counts
- ii Line transects
- iii Territory mapping
- c Invertebrate sampling techniques
- i Tree beating
- ii Sweep netting
- iii Malaise trap
- iv Pitfall traps
- d Freshwater invertebrates
- e Coastal ecological fieldwork
- 8.5 Concluding comments
- 8.6 Further reading
- Chapter 9 Social surveys
- 9.1 Introduction
- 9.2 Conceptual issues
- a Is it ethical?
- b Will the survey be credible to the respondent?
- c Will the data be valid?
- d Will the data be reliable?
- e Will the data be representative?
- 9.3 Types of social survey
- a Self-administered questionnaires
- b Postal questionnaires
- c Interviewer-administered questionnaires
- d Telephone questionnaires
- e Panel and longitudinal surveys
- 9.4 Populations and samples
- a Identifying your target population
- b Sample selection
- i Random sample selection
- ii Non-random sample selection
- c Sample size
- 9.5 Questionnaire design and construction
- a Designing the questionnaire
- i Relevance
- ii Comprehensivenes
- iii Comprehensibility
- iv Aptness of form
- v Feasibilit
- b Word and question meaning
- c Quantitative and qualitative data
- d Question formatting
- i Closed and open-ended questions
- ii Comparability
- iii Measuring strength of opinion
- iv Questions on recurrent behaviour
- v Motivation, attitude and opinion
- 9.6 Pilot studies
- 9.7 Preparing your data for analysis
- a Scales of measurement
- b Coding of data
- c Discursive analysis
- d Graphical analysis
- 9.8 Concluding comments
- 9.9 Further reading
- Chapter 10 Safety
- 10.1 The aim of this chapter
- a How accidents happen
- b Legislative framework
- 10.2 General safety
- a Risk assessment
- b Control of substances hazardous to health (COSHH)
- c A safety framework and structure
- 10.3 Specific location safety
- a Laboratory
- i General procedures and equipment
- b Fieldwork
- i Introduction
- ii Clothing
- iii Aditional safety equipment
- iv General
- 10.4 Concluding comments
- 10.5 Further reading
- APPENDIX 1 Mathematical constants and formulae
- Al.l Constants and logarithms
- A1.2 Algebra, expansions and approximations
- A1.3 Vectors
- A1.4 Calculus
- A1.5 Mensuration
- A1.6 Trigonometry
- A1.7 Astronomical data
- A1.8 Terrestrial and geodetic data
- A1.9 Composition of the atmosphere
- A1.10 Principal elements in the Earth's crust (% by mass)
- A1.11 Pr incipal elements in the hydrosphere (% by mass)
- A1.12 The Greek alphabet
- A1.1 3 The fundamental constants
- A1.14 The periodic table
- APPENDIX 2 Statistical tables
- APPENDIX 3 Detailed field and chemical methods for soils
- A3.1 Introduction
- A3.2 Physical methods
- a Soil life
- b Bulk density (soil rings)
- c Soil strength (cone penetrometers)
- A3.3 Moisture
- a Loss on drying (LOD)
- b Loss on ignition (LOI)
- A3.4 Carbon
- a Dichromate oxidation
- b Carbonate
- A3.5 Extractions
- a EDTA extractions
- A3.6 Digestions
- a Partial digestion with concentrated nitric acid
- b Aqua regia digestion
- c In-situ oxidation (concentrated nitric and sulfuric acids)
- d Method for mercury
- A3.7 Nitrogen
- a Organic nitrogen
- b Total nitrogen
- A3.8 Extractable phosphate
- A3.9 Potassium
- 3.10 Extractable chloride
- 3.11 Extractable and/or absorbed sulfate
- Index
