Solid Phase Processing of Polymers

1 - Foreword [Seite 8]
2 - Contents [Seite 10]
3 - 1 Introduction [Seite 22]
3.1 - 1.1 Key Scientific Issues [Seite 22]
3.1.1 - 1.1.1 The chemical structure of the polymer and its degrees of regularity [Seite 22]
3.1.2 - 1.1.2 The effect of plastic deformation, the concept of the true stress-true strain curve [Seite 24]
3.1.3 - 1.1.3 Structural considerations: molecular understanding of plastic deformation [Seite 29]
3.2 - References [Seite 31]
4 - 2 Deformation Mechanisms and Morphology of Crystalline Polymers [Seite 32]
4.1 - 2.1 Introduction [Seite 32]
4.2 - 2.2 Macroscopic Phenomena [Seite 32]
4.3 - 2.3 Cracks, Crazing and Brittleness [Seite 33]
4.4 - 2.4 Segregation-Induced Brittleness [Seite 36]
4.5 - 2.5 Cold Drawing [Seite 37]
4.6 - 2.6 Morphological Factors [Seite 38]
4.7 - 2.7 Microscopic Observations [Seite 40]
4.8 - 2.8 Electron Microscopy [Seite 41]
4.9 - 2.9 The Deformation of Banded Spherulites [Seite 43]
4.10 - 2.10 Lamellar Deformation [Seite 45]
4.11 - 2.11 Memory Retention in Cold Drawing [Seite 46]
4.12 - 2.12 Ordering Within Fibres [Seite 48]
4.13 - 2.13 Disentanglement [Seite 50]
4.14 - 2.14 Overview [Seite 50]
4.15 - References [Seite 51]
5 - 3 Characterization of Orientation [Seite 54]
5.1 - 3.1 Molecular Orientation and Its Definition [Seite 54]
5.2 - 3.2 Birefringence [Seite 62]
5.2.1 - 3.2.1 Biaxially oriented polyethylene terephthalate (PET) film [Seite 67]
5.2.2 - 3.2.2 PET orientation and relaxation monitoring [Seite 68]
5.3 - 3.3 Vibrational Spectroscopy [Seite 70]
5.3.1 - 3.3.1 General [Seite 70]
5.3.2 - 3.3.2 Transmission infrared spectroscopy [Seite 70]
5.3.3 - 3.3.3 Attenuated total reflection (ATR) infrared spectroscopy [Seite 79]
5.3.4 - 3.3.4 External reflection infrared spectroscopy [Seite 81]
5.3.5 - 3.3.5 Photoacoustic infrared spectroscopy [Seite 84]
5.3.6 - 3.3.6 Raman spectroscopy [Seite 85]
5.4 - 3.4 Other Spectroscopic Techniques [Seite 86]
5.4.1 - 3.4.1 Fluorescence [Seite 86]
5.4.2 - 3.4.2 Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy [Seite 88]
5.5 - 3.5. X-Ray Diffraction [Seite 90]
5.5.1 - 3.5.1 General [Seite 90]
5.5.2 - 3.5.2 Amorphous orientation from X-Ray diffraction [Seite 95]
5.5.3 - 3.5.3 Synchrotron X-Ray diffraction [Seite 97]
5.6 - 3.6 Ultrasonic and Other Techniques [Seite 98]
5.7 - References [Seite 100]
6 - 4. Solid State Processing of Fibers [Seite 106]
6.1 - 4.1 Introduction [Seite 106]
6.1.1 - 4.1.1 Background [Seite 106]
6.1.2 - 4.1.2 Common polymers used in man made fibers [Seite 106]
6.2 - 4.2 Overview of Fiber Processing [Seite 107]
6.3 - 4.3 The Liquid State [Seite 110]
6.4 - 4.4 The Spinning Process [Seite 111]
6.4.1 - 4.4.1 Spinning technology [Seite 111]
6.4.2 - 4.4.2 Modelling the spinning process [Seite 115]
6.4.3 - 4.4.3. Development of structure during melt spinning [Seite 120]
6.4.4 - 4.4.4 Development of structure during solution spinning [Seite 122]
6.4.5 - 4.4.5 Development of structure during liquid crystalline spinning [Seite 123]
6.5 - 4.5 The Drawing Process [Seite 123]
6.5.1 - 4.5.1 Drawing technology [Seite 124]
6.5.2 - 4.5.2 Modelling the drawing process [Seite 126]
6.5.3 - 4.5.3 Development of structure during drawing of flexible chain polymers [Seite 131]
6.6 - 4.6 The Heat Treating Process [Seite 134]
6.6.1 - 4.6.1 Heat treating technology [Seite 134]
6.6.2 - 4.6.2 Development of structure during the heat treating of flexible chain polymers [Seite 135]
6.6.3 - 4.6.3 Development of structure during the heat treating of rigid chain polymers [Seite 135]
6.7 - 4.7 Fiber Structure: Multiphase Models [Seite 136]
6.8 - 4.8 General Process-Structure-Property Relationships [Seite 137]
6.9 - 4.9 Other Textile Processes [Seite 138]
6.10 - 4.10 Special Processes [Seite 139]
6.10.1 - 4.10.1 Gel spinning and superdrawing [Seite 139]
6.10.2 - 4.10.2 Protein fibers [Seite 139]
6.11 - 4.11 Conclusions: what do you want to make - what really matters [Seite 140]
6.12 - References [Seite 140]
7 - 5 High Modulus Fibres [Seite 141]
7.1 - 5.1 Melt Spun Polyethylene, Polypropylene and Polyoxymethylene (Polyacetal) Fibres [Seite 141]
7.1.1 - 5.1.1 Introduction [Seite 141]
7.1.2 - 5.1.2 The tensile drawing behaviour of polyethylene [Seite 144]
7.1.3 - 5.1.3 Tensile drawing of polypropylene and polyoxymethylene [Seite 149]
7.1.4 - 5.1.4 The structure of ultra high modulus polymers [Seite 149]
7.1.5 - 5.1.5 Fibre strength [Seite 151]
7.1.6 - 5.1.6 Other mechanical properties [Seite 157]
7.1.7 - 5.1.7 Thermal properties [Seite 168]
7.1.8 - 5.1.8 Surface treatment [Seite 169]
7.1.9 - 5.1.9 Applications of melt spun PE fibres [Seite 170]
7.1.10 - 5.1.10 Composites [Seite 170]
7.1.11 - 5.1.11 Hot compaction [Seite 171]
7.1.12 - References [Seite 173]
7.2 - 5.2 Aramid Fibres [Seite 176]
7.2.1 - 5.2.1 Historical introduction [Seite 176]
7.2.2 - 5.2.2 Heat- and flame-resistant meta-aramid fibres [Seite 178]
7.2.3 - 5.2.3 High-tenacity high-modulus fibres from anisotropic solution [Seite 180]
7.2.4 - 5.3.3 High-tenacity high-modulus aramid fibres from isotropic solutions [Seite 189]
7.2.5 - References [Seite 191]
7.3 - 5.3 Fibres Based on Ultra-High Molecular Weight Polyethylene - Processing and Applications [Seite 193]
7.3.1 - 5.3.1 Introduction [Seite 193]
7.3.2 - 5.3.2 The ultimate stiffness and strength of flexible polymers [Seite 200]
7.3.3 - 5.3.3 Chain-extension, on the borderline between solid and melt [Seite 203]
7.3.4 - 5.3.4 Properties and applications of polyethylene fibres [Seite 220]
7.3.5 - 5.3.5 Limiting properties of polyethylene fibres [Seite 225]
7.3.6 - 5.3.6 Conclusions [Seite 231]
7.3.7 - References [Seite 231]
8 - 6 Development of Molecular Orientation During Biaxial Film Tentering of PET [Seite 235]
8.1 - 6.1 Introduction [Seite 235]
8.2 - 6.2 Definitions, Materials and Experimental Characterisation Techniques [Seite 238]
8.2.1 - 6.2.1 Quantitative characterisation of orientation [Seite 238]
8.2.2 - 6.2.2 Experimental techniques: Characterization of the crystalline phase [Seite 239]
8.3 - 6.3 First Stretching Process [Seite 242]
8.3.1 - 6.3.1 Normal sequence [Seite 242]
8.3.2 - 6.3.2 Inverse sequence [Seite 249]
8.3.3 - 6.3.3 Comparison between constant rate and constant force drawing of amorphous samples [Seite 251]
8.4 - 6.4 Transverse Stretching of One-Way Drawn Samples [Seite 252]
8.4.1 - 6.4.1 Transverse stretching in the normal sequence [Seite 252]
8.4.2 - 6.4.2 Transverse stretching in the inverse sequence [Seite 259]
8.4.3 - 6.4.3 Comparison between constant rate and constant force transverse drawing [Seite 263]
8.5 - 6.5 High Temperature Annealing [Seite 265]
8.5.1 - 6.5.1 Influence of annealing time [Seite 267]
8.5.2 - 6.5.2 Influence of the annealing temperature [Seite 271]
8.6 - 6.6 Conclusions [Seite 275]
8.7 - References [Seite 276]
9 - 7. Rolling and Roll-Drawing of Semi-Crystalline Thermoplastics [Seite 279]
9.1 - 7.1 Introduction [Seite 279]
9.1.1 - 7.1.1 Why orient polymers? [Seite 279]
9.1.2 - 7.1.2 Orientation processes and solid state deformation of semi-crystalline polymers [Seite 280]
9.2 - 7.2 Rolling and Roll-drawing [Seite 283]
9.2.1 - 7.2.1 Introduction [Seite 283]
9.2.2 - 7.2.2 Roll-drawing of semi-crystalline polymers [Seite 284]
9.2.3 - 7.2.3 Structure development [Seite 285]
9.2.4 - 7.2.4 Mechanical properties [Seite 287]
9.3 - 7.3 A Case Study: PET [Seite 289]
9.3.1 - 7.3.1 Orientation of PET [Seite 289]
9.3.2 - 7.3.2 Relaxation and recovery during rolling [Seite 290]
9.4 - 7.4 Roll-Drawing ofPET [Seite 300]
9.4.1 - 7.4.1 Roll-drawing of amorphous PET [Seite 301]
9.4.2 - 7.4.2 Roll-drawing of semi-crystalline PET [Seite 303]
9.4.3 - 7.4.3 Properties [Seite 312]
9.5 - References [Seite 315]
10 - 8 Planar Deformation of Thermoplastics [Seite 317]
10.1 - 8.1 Introduction [Seite 317]
10.2 - 8.2 Concepts [Seite 319]
10.2.1 - 8.2.1 Synergistic effect [Seite 319]
10.2.2 - 8.2.2 Orientation texture [Seite 320]
10.2.3 - 8.2.3 Order-disorder transition [Seite 321]
10.3 - 8.3 Physical Properties Induced By Planar Deformation [Seite 322]
10.3.1 - 8.3.1 Polyethylene [Seite 322]
10.3.2 - 8.3.2 Polypropylene [Seite 325]
10.3.3 - 8.3.3 Higher poly-1-olefine [Seite 329]
10.3.4 - 8.3.4 Poly(ethylene terephthalate) [Seite 329]
10.3.5 - 8.3.5 Polyimide [Seite 330]
10.3.6 - 8.3.6 Other thermoplastics [Seite 331]
10.4 - 8.4 Analytical Approaches for Planar Deformation [Seite 331]
10.4.1 - 8.4.1 Ductility and draw efficiency [Seite 331]
10.4.2 - 8.4.2 Trirefringence [Seite 332]
10.4.3 - 8.4.3 X-ray analysis [Seite 333]
10.4.4 - 8.4.4 Spectroscopy [Seite 334]
10.4.5 - 8.4.5 Neutron scattering [Seite 335]
10.4.6 - 8.4.6 Elastic recovery [Seite 335]
10.4.7 - 8.4.7 Gas permeation [Seite 336]
10.4.8 - 8.4.8 Mechanical tests [Seite 338]
10.4.9 - 8.4.9 Multiple regression analysis [Seite 342]
10.4.10 - References [Seite 345]
11 - 9 Solid State Extrusion and Die Drawing [Seite 349]
11.1 - 9.1 Ram Extrusion [Seite 349]
11.2 - 9.2 Hydrostatic Extrusion [Seite 351]
11.2.1 - 9.2.1 Introduction [Seite 351]
11.2.2 - 9.2.2 The mechanics of the hydrostatic extrusion process [Seite 353]
11.2.3 - 9.2.3 Hydrostatic extrusion as a possible engineering operation [Seite 358]
11.2.4 - 9.2.4 Hydrostatic extrusion of pressure annealed polyethylene [Seite 359]
11.2.5 - 9.2.5 Hydrostatic extrusion of filled polymers [Seite 362]
11.2.6 - 9.2.6 Other properties of hydrostatically extruded materials [Seite 365]
11.3 - 9.3 Die-Drawing [Seite 366]
11.3.1 - 9.3.1 The die-drawing process [Seite 366]
11.3.2 - 9.3.2 Die-drawing of tube [Seite 372]
11.3.3 - 9.3.3 Development of the continuous die-drawing process [Seite 378]
11.3.4 - 9.3.4 Mechanics of the die-drawing process [Seite 382]
11.3.5 - 9.3.5 Properties of die-drawn products [Seite 383]
11.3.6 - 9.3.6 Applications of die-drawn materials [Seite 385]
11.4 - References [Seite 386]
12 - 10. Mathematical Modelling [Seite 389]
12.1 - 10.1 Constitutive Equations [Seite 389]
12.1.1 - 10.1.1 Phenomenological equations [Seite 389]
12.1.2 - 10.1.2 Constitutive relations incorporating the deformation of a molecular network [Seite 394]
12.2 - 10.2 Numerical Modelling of Forming Processes [Seite 400]
12.2.1 - 10.2.1 Elastic constitutive behaviour [Seite 401]
12.2.2 - 10.2.2 Rate dependent constitutive behaviour [Seite 413]
12.3 - References [Seite 423]
13 - Index [Seite 425]