Intellectual Property Law and Human Rights

Name: Intellectual Property Law and Human Rights
Brand: Kluwer Law International
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Paul Torremans(Editor)

Kluwer Law International (Publisher)

Published on 8. June 2020

1120 pages

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Intellectual Property Law and Human Rights Fourth Edition Edited by Paul L.C. Torremans Once regarded as a niche topic, the nexus of intellectual property and human rights now lies in the eye of the storm that is today's global economy. In this expanded new edition of the pre-eminent work in this crucial area of legal theory and practice with nine completely new chapters well-known authorities in both intellectual property law and human rights law present an in-depth analysis and discussion of essential and emerging issues in the convergence of intellectual property law and human rights law. The fourth edition is fully updated to address current matters as diverse as artificial intelligence, climate change, and biotechnological materials, all centred on the relations between intellectual property and freedom of expression and the fundamental right to privacy in an intellectual property environment. The contributors address such topics as the following and more: the status of copyright as a fundamental right; fair use, transformative use, and the US First Amendment; intellectual property in the jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights; freedom to receive and impart information under the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights; how to mitigate the risks article 17 of Directive 2019/970 poses to freedom of expression; fair dealing defences; algorithmic copyright enforcement and free speech; developing a right to privacy for corporations; expanding the role of morality and public policy in European patent law; and ethical and religious concerns over patenting biotechnological inventions. As human rights issues continue to arise in an intellectual property context, practitioners, academics, and policymakers in both fields will continue to recognize and use this well-established cornerstone work in the debate as a springboard to the future development of the ever more prominent interface of intellectual property and human rights.

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Content

Intro
Half-Title Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Editor
Contributors
Summary of Contents
Table of Contents
Preface
Part I The Relationship Between Intellectual Property and Human Rights
Chapter 1 How Intellectual Property and Human Rights Can Live Together: An Updated Perspective
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Intellectual Property as Trade Law
1.2.1 The Alignment with Trade
1.2.2 The Three-Step Test
1.2.2.1 'Certain Special Cases'
1.2.2.2 Interference with Normal Commercial Exploitation
1.2.2.3 Unreasonable Prejudice to Legitimate Interests of Rights Holders
1.2.2.4 European 'InfoSoc' Directive
1.2.3 Exclusion of Moral Rights
1.3 Copyright's Internal Balance in the Mirror of Human Rights
1.4 Intellectual Property and Human Rights: The New Conflicts
1.5 Conclusion
Chapter 2 The New Innovation Frontier Revisited: Intellectual Property and the European Court of Human Rights
2.1 Introduction
2.2 European Convention on Human Rights and the Right of Property
2.2.1 Article 1 of Protocol 1: Protecting Peaceful Enjoyment of Possessions
2.2.2 The Subject Matter and Temporal Scope of the Right of Property
2.2.3 Interferences with Property
2.2.4 Assessing the Legality of Interferences
2.3 Intellectual Property and the European Convention's Right of Property: A Tripartite Framework for Analysis
2.3.1 Is Intellectual Property Protected by Article 1?
2.3.1.1 Literary and Artistic Works
2.3.1.1.1 Dima v. Romania
2.2.1.1.2 Implications of Dima for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works
2.3.1.2 Industrial Property
2.3.1.2.1 Anheuser-Busch Inc. v. Portugal
2.3.1.2.2 The Significance of Anheuser-Busch's Extension of Article 1 to Trademark Applications
2.3.2 Has the State Interfered with a Possession?
2.3.2.1 Restrictions on the Exercise of Intellectual Property Rights
2.3.2.2 Interferences Resulting from Litigation Between Private Parties
2.3.2.2.1 Adjudication of Intellectual Property Contracts
2.3.2.2.2 Rejection of Domestic Infringement Claims
2.3.2.2.3 Resolution of Competing Ownership Claims
2.3.3 Has the State Adequately Justified Its Interference with a Possession?
2.3.3.1 Compulsory Licenses
2.3.3.2 Other Exceptions and Limitations to Exclusive Rights
2.4 Forecasting the Future: Three Paradigms for ECHR Adjudication of Intellectual Property Disputes
2.4.1 The Rule of Law Paradigm
2.4.2 The Enforcement Paradigm
2.4.3 The Intellectual Property Balancing Paradigm
2.5 Conclusion
Chapter 3 Challenges to the Development of a Human Rights Framework for Intellectual Property
3.1 Introduction
3.2 The 'Human Rights Ratchet'
3.3 Institutional Capture
3.4 Cultural Bias
3.5 Conclusion
Chapter 4 Reconceptualizing the Constitutional Dimension of Intellectual Property: An Update
4.1 Introduction
4.2 'Constitutionalizing' IP Law: A Way to Secure a Just Balance of the Involved Interests
4.2.1 The Guarantee of a Just Balance of Interests: The Crucial Issue
4.2.2 The Crisis of the Classical Foundations of IP Law: The Copyright Example
4.3 The Constitutional Framework for IP
4.3.1 Copyright as a Cultural Right
4.3.2 Copyright as an Exception to Freedom of Expression and Information
4.3.3 Copyright as a (Conditioned) Property
4.4 Consequences of 'Constitutionalizing' IP Law
4.4.1 Fundamental Rights as Guidelines for the Application of IP Law
4.4.2 Fundamental Rights as Guidelines for Reorganizing IP Law
4.5 Reconceptualizing the Constitutional Protection for IP: Three Proposed Models for a Balanced IP Clause in Human Rights Instruments
4.6 Conclusion
Chapter 5 Intellectual Property Rights and Human Rights: Coinciding and Cooperating
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Intellectual Property Rights as Human Rights: International and European Perspectives
5.3 Analysing the Potential or Apparent Conflicts
5.3.1 Conflicts Between Copyright and Freedom of Expression, Right to Privacy, Right to Education and Right to the Respect of One's Property
5.3.2 Conflicts Between Patents Rights and Protection of New Varieties of Plants and Right to Health, Right to Food, Right to a Safe and Clean Environment and Freedom of Speech and Right of the Public to Receive Information
5.4 Conclusion
Chapter 6 Proportionality and Balancing Within the Objectives for Intellectual Property Protection
6.1 Introduction: Proportionality, Article 7 TRIPS, and Human Rights
6.2 The Role for Proportionality in the Context of International Economic Law
6.3 TRIPS Objectives as Normative Input for the Balancing Exercise
6.3.1 The Preamble of TRIPS
6.3.2 The Objectives under Article 7 TRIPS
6.3.2.1 Balance of Interests
6.3.2.2 WTO Members Discretion to Exercise Balancing
6.3.2.3 Legitimate Expectations of Interested Trading Partners in the WTO
6.3.2.4 The Role of 'Object and Purpose' in WTO Treaty Interpretation
6.3.2.5 The Doha Declarations: Increasing the Relative Importance of TRIPS Objectives?
6.3.2.5.1 Formal Legal Status of the Doha Declarations
6.3.2.5.2 The Substance of the Declaration on TRIPS and Public Health
6.3.2.5.3 Conclusions: Double Counting and Single Most Important Element
6.3.2.6 Re-evaluating Canada: Patents in Light of Australia - Plain Packaging
6.4 Concluding Remarks: The Case for a Balance of Interest in Its Wider Context
Chapter 7 Copyright (and Other Intellectual Property Rights) as a Human Right
7.1 Introduction
7.2 The Human Rights Approach to Copyright in International Instruments
7.2.1 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights
7.2.2 The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
7.3 Other Intellectual Property Rights
7.4 Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union
7.5 Balancing Private and Public Interests
7.5.1 The Need for a Balancing Act
7.5.2 The Balancing Act in the ECHR
7.5.3 The Balancing Act in the Court of Justice of the EU
7.5.4 Competition Principles as an Example
7.5.4.1 Principles and Justification
7.5.4.2 Magill and IMS Health
7.5.4.3 Not Only Economic Considerations Count
7.5.5 An Internal or an External Balance
7.6 Copyright's Relationship with Other Human Rights
7.7 Conclusion
Part II Copyright and Human Rights
Chapter 8 Copyright and Freedom of Expression in Canada
8.1 The 'Very Well-Tailored Structure' of the Canadian Copyright Act: Freedom of Expression Internalized
8.1.1 The Supreme Court of Canada and the Concept of User Rights
8.1.2 Fair Dealing as a User Right in Canada: Fostering a 'Robustly Cultured And Intellectual Public Domain'
8.1.3 Other Copyright Limitations and Exceptions That Support an Internalized Approach
8.2 Where Copyright and Freedom of Expression Collide: Cases of Structural Failure
8.2.1 Provisions Relating to the Circumvention of Technological Protection Measures and Digital Rights Management Technologies
8.2.2 Contracting Out of 'User Rights' Especially Fair Dealing
8.3 A Charter Approach to Canadian Copyright Law
8.3.1 A Charter Consistent Copyright Act: Resolving the Structural Failures
8.3.2 A Charter Consistent Interpretation of the Act: Recognizing Copyright's Constitutional Dimension
8.4 Conclusion
Chapter 9 Communication to the Public of Works and Freedom to Receive and Impart Information in the Charter of Fundamental Rights
9.1 The Right of Communication to the Public and Freedom to Receive and Impart Information
9.1.1 Freedom of Expression and the Development of the CJEU Case Law
9.1.2 The GS Media Ruling and Freedom to Receive and Impart Information
9.2 Harmonization of Copyright and Related Rights and the Standards for Protection of Freedom of Expression
9.2.1 Pelham Case and the Scope of Reproduction Right in the Light of Articles 13 and 11 of the Charter
9.2.2 Judgments in Funke-Medien and Spiegel-Online and the Impact of the Charter on the Interpretation of Provisions on Limitations and Exceptions
9.2.3 Full Harmonization of Rights and Interpretation of Exceptions and Limitation in the Light of the Charter
9.3 Communication to the Public and the Balancing of Rights and Freedoms in the Digital Single Market Directive: Favouring Freedom of Expression?
9.4 Conclusion
Chapter 10 Guiding the Blind Bloodhounds: How to Mitigate the Risks Article 17 of Directive 2019/970 Poses to the Freedom of Expression
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Content Filtering
10.3 The Core Tenets of Article 17
10.4 Impact of Article 17 on the Freedom of Expression
10.4.1 Overblocking of Existing Content
10.4.2 Chilling Effect Preceding Actual Content Filtering
10.5 Mitigating the Damage to Freedom of Expression
10.5.1 The 'Wishing Well' Provision
10.5.2 Making Exceptions Mandatory (And Harmonised?)
10.5.3 Limiting the Overblocking Occurring via Machine Mistakes: Keeping the 'Human in the Loop'
10.5.4 The Appeal Procedure
10.5.5 Excluding Certain Platforms from the Scope of Article 17
10.5.6 Educating Users on What Can Be Posted
10.5.7 Pre-upload Labelling by Users
10.5.8 Legal Measures and Actions Taken for Violation of Freedom of Expression
10.5.9 Copyright Ownership-Verification Mechanisms
10.6 Broader Steps Aimed at Ensuring the Adequate Human Rights Balance in Article 17
10.6.1 Transparency
10.6.2 Introducing Dedicated Administrative Bodies
10.7 Conclusion
Chapter 11 The Conflict Between the Human Right to Education and Copyright
11.1 Introduction
11.2 The Foundation for the Human Right to Education: The United Nations Charter and the UDHR
11.3 The ICESCR on the Right to Education and How It Has Been Interpreted
11.4 The Human Right of Authors' Moral and Material Interests
11.4.1 Article 27 of the UDHR Specifies That the Moral and Material Interests of Authors Are a Human Right
11.4.2 Article 15 of the ICESCR Specifies That "the Moral and Material Interests of Authors Are a Human Right"
11.5 TRIPS Interpreted
11.6 The Internal Conflict
11.7 The External Conflict
11.8 Market Failure and the False Conflict Paradigm
11.9 Conclusion
Chapter 12 Copyright and the Two Cultures of Online Communication
12.1 Communication Cultures on the Internet
12.1.1 Exclusivity Culture
12.1.2 Access Culture
12.1.3 Freedom of Choice and Hybrids
12.2 The Role of Current Copyright Law
12.2.1 Copyright and Exclusivity Culture
12.2.2 Copyright and Access Culture
12.3 Perspectives
12.3.1 Further Promotion of the Exclusivity Culture
12.3.2 Further Reinforcement of the Access Culture
12.4 Conclusion
Chapter 13 Fair Use, Transformative Use and the First Amendment
13.1 Introduction
13.2 An Overview of Fair Use
13.2.1 Historical Perspective
13.2.2 The Preamble of the Statute
13.2.3 The Four Criteria
13.3 The Origins of the Transformative Use Doctrine
13.4 Transformative Use and the Problem of Parody
13.4.1 Parody as Fair Use: Its Statutory Basis
13.4.2 Parody, Transformative Use and the Four Factors: Campbell v. Acuff-Rose
13.4.3 How Much Can the Parody Take from the Original?
13.4.4 Parody and the Fourth Fair-Use Factor: Market Effect
13.4.5 Does the Parody Have to Target the Copyrighted Work?
13.5 Beyond Parody: From Transformative Use to Transformative Purpose
13.5.1 On Line Research Tools: Perfect 10, Inc. v. Amazon, Inc.
13.5.2 Appropriation Art
13.5.3 Mass Digitization and Fair Use: The Google Book Search Project
13.6 Transformative Use in Context: Striking a Balance Between the First Amendment and Copyright
Chapter 14 After the Server Test: Embedded Content and the Digital Millennium Copyright Act
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Goldman v. Breitbart News Network
14.2.1 The Photograph
14.2.2 Embedded Links to the Photograph
14.2.3 Goldman's Procedural History
14.3 The Untested Argument: DMCA Safe Harbor
14.3.1 General Requirements for Safe Harbor under § 512(d)
14.3.1.1 Who Is a Service Provider?
14.3.1.2 Repeat Infringer Policies
14.3.1.3 Interference with Standard Technical Measures
14.3.2 Specific Requirements for Safe Harbor under 17 U.S.C. § 512(d)
14.3.2.1 Inline Links to Third-Party Media Content Are "Information Location Tools" Within the Meaning of 17 U.S.C. § 512(d)
14.3.2.2 Actual Knowledge of Infringing Activity
14.3.2.3 Financial Benefit Directly Attributable to the Infringing Activity
14.3.2.4 Takedown Notices
14.4 Limitations
14.5 Conclusion
Chapter 15 Finding the Balance in Copyright Law: Internal and External Control Through Fundamental Rights
15.1 Introduction
15.2 The Reach of Fundamental Rights
15.3 The Balance Between Exclusive Rights and 'User Rights'
15.3.1 Defining the Scope of Exclusive (Economic) Rights
15.3.2 Implementing and Applying 'User Rights'
15.4 External Dimension: Enforcement
15.5 Fundamental Rights as Determinants an Ever-Shifting Balance
15.5.1 Internal Control
15.5.2 External Control
15.6 Conclusion
Chapter 16 Fair Dealing Defences
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Narrow Statutory Purposes
16.3 Fairness
16.4 Conclusion
Chapter 17 Fundamental Rights for Author's and Contractual Relations: A Comparative Perspective
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Copyright Laws About Authorship from a Fundamental Rights Perspective
17.2.1 The Constitutional Clauses for Copyright
17.2.1.1 No Constitutional Provision
17.2.1.2 Constitutional Provisions Empowering the Legislature
17.2.1.3 Constitutional Recognition as a Singularized Right
17.2.1.4 Combination of Programmatic and Empowering Clauses
17.2.2 The Connection Between Authorship and Originality from a Constitutional Perspective
17.2.2.1 The United Kingdom
17.2.2.2 The United States of America
17.2.2.3 Europe
17.2.2.4 Spain
17.2.2.5 Colombia
17.2.2.6 Argentina
17.2.2.7 Mexico
17.2.3 Partial Conclusions
17.3 Human Rights and the Principle of Private Autonomy in Copyright Laws
17.3.1 Balance
17.3.1.1 Assignation or Transference
17.3.1.2 Works Made for Hire or Similar Provisions
17.3.2 Dignity
17.3.2.1 Dignity in Welfare
17.3.3 Autonomy
17.3.3.1 Freedom of Contract
17.3.3.1.1 Assignation of Copyright
17.3.3.1.2 Works Made for Hire or Similar Figures
17.3.3.2 Freedom of Creativity
17.4 Conclusions
Chapter 18 What Is Left of User Rights: Algorithmic Copyright Enforcement and Free Speech in the Light of the Article 17 Regime
18.1 Introduction
18.2 The Regime of Article 17
18.2.1 Introduction
18.2.2 Article 17's Fundamental Rights Interface and Limitations and Exceptions
18.2.3 The Role of Limitations and Exceptions in the Light of the Case Law of the CJEU
18.2.3.1 Pelham, Funke Medien and Spiegel Online
18.2.4 Summing Up
18.3 Procedural Safeguarding of Limitations and Exceptions
18.4 Concluding Remarks: What Is Left of User Rights?
Part III Trade Marks and Human Rights
Chapter 19 Trademarks and Human Rights
19.1 Introductory
19.2 The Resurgence of the Human Rights Discourse at the Turn of the Last Century
19.3 In Which Ways Are Trademarks Different from Other IPRs for Purposes of Human Rights Analysis?
19.4 Identification of the Levels of the Interface Between Trademark Law and Human Rights
19.5 Trademarks as Property
19.6 The Anheuser-Busch Case
19.7 Unregistered Trademarks, Trade Names and Domain Names: The Paeffgen Case
19.8 Geographic Indications as Property: The Tocaj Case
19.9 The Tobacco and Plain Packaging Cases
19.10 Absolute Grounds for Refusal of the Registration of a Trademark and Human Rights: Two Approaches on the Relevance of Free Speech
19.11 Prohibitions to Use a Trademark for Public Policy Reasons
19.12 The 'Need to Keep Free' in a Human Rights Perspective
19.13 Human Rights and the Conflict Between Senior and Junior Trademarks
19.14 Likelihood of Confusion and Human Rights
19.15 Human Rights, Dilution and 'Absolute' Protection of Trademarks: The Issue
19.16 The Options
19.17 The First Three Pillars of an 'Integrated System'?
19.18 Exceptions and Limitations as the Fourth Pillar of the 'Integrated System'
Chapter 20 Folklore, Human Rights and Intellectual Property
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Getting a Grasp of Folklore
20.3 Placing the Protection of Folklore Within the Right Legal Framework
20.3.1 Intellectual Property Laws
20.3.1.1 Copyright
20.3.1.2 Trademark Law
20.3.1.3 Geographical Indications of Origin
20.3.1.4 Sui Generis Protection
20.3.2 Human Rights Laws
20.3.2.1 Relevant Legal Instruments in the Field of Human Rights Laws
20.3.2.2 Suitability of Human Rights Laws for Protecting Folklore
20.4 Which Law for Folklore: A Suggestion
20.5 Conclusion
Chapter 21 Is Taking Advantage Always Unfair? Balancing Interests in Brand Investment with Basic Rights and Free Competition Rules in the EU
21.1 Intellectual Property Rights Versus Basic Human Rights
21.2 Analysis of the Situation in the EU
21.2.1 The Legal Background: Why Protection of Trademarks with Reputation in the EU Is Considered to Be Excessive?
21.2.2 A Notion of "Taking Unfair Advantage"
21.2.3 Trademark Functions Theory
21.3 The Danger for Free Competition and Commercial Speech to Fall into the Black Hole of Trademark Protection in the Light of L'Oreal Decision
21.3.1 Facts of the Case
21.3.2 Legality of Imitation and Free Competition Necessary for Exercising the Right to Conduct Business
21.3.3 IP Rights and Free Commercial Speech
21.4 Recommendations
21.4.1 Removal of "Unfair Advantage" Element and Broader Interpretation of "Detriment to the Distinctiveness"
21.4.2 Correct Interpretation of the Terms "Unfair" and "Without Due Cause" as the Alternative Ways Out
21.5 Conclusion
Chapter 22 Algorithmic Enforcement Online
22.1 Introduction: Towards Algorithmic Enforcement
22.2 What Is Algorithmic Enforcement?
22.3 How Is Algorithmic Enforcement Emerging?
22.3.1 Private Ordering and Voluntary Measures: From Intermediary Liability to Responsibility
22.3.2 Case Law: Addressing the Internet Threat
22.3.3 Legislation: Article 17 of the C-DSM Directive
22.4 How Algorithmic Enforcement Affects Human Rights?
22.4.1 Users' Rights
22.4.1.1 Due Process
22.4.1.2 Freedom of Information and Internet Access
22.4.1.3 Freedom of Expression
22.4.1.4 Right to Privacy and Data Protection
22.4.2 IP Owners' Rights
22.4.3 OSPs, Freedom of Business and Innovation
22.5 How Human Rights Can Be Protected from Algorithmic Enforcement?
22.6 Conclusions
Part IV Rights in Information
Chapter 23 Privacy, Confidentiality and Property
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Privacy and Confidentiality
23.2.1 The Law of Confidentiality
23.2.2 The Limits of Informational Privacy
23.2.3 Informational Privacy and the 'Blockbuster Tort' Objection
23.3 Confidentiality as the Ownership of Trade Secrets
23.4 Privacy, Defamation and 'False Light' Portrayal
23.4.1 Privacy and Defamation
23.4.2 'False Light' Portrayal
23.5 Publicity and Merchandising
23.5.1 Privacy as the Ownership of Image: The Right of Publicity
23.5.2 Trademarks: The Information Function
23.5.3 The Non-information-Related 'Image' Function of a Trademark
23.5.4 Protecting Images for Merchandising Through the Law of Trademarks
23.6 Intellectual Property and the Ownership of Intangibles
23.7 Conclusion
Chapter 24 Developing a Right of Privacy for Corporations
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Definition of Privacy
24.3 The Protection of Corporations' Privacy under the English Law of Confidence
24.4 Article 8 ECHR: Jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights on Privacy
24.5 The Australian Experience
24.6 Arguments for the Further Development of a Right of Privacy for Corporations
24.7 Development of Corporations' Privacy in English Law: Recommendations
24.8 Conclusion
Chapter 25 Intellectual Property, Human Rights and Climate Change
25.1 Introduction
25.2 IP and Climate Change
25.2.1 Legal Landscape
25.2.2 A Place for IP
25.2.3 What Can Be Done Within IP Law
25.3 Human Rights, Climate Change and IP
25.3.1 Relevant Rights
25.3.2 Policy Engagement
25.3.3 Movements to Court
25.3.4 Human Rights, Climate Change, Technology and IP
25.4 Widening the Lens
25.5 Concluding Thoughts
Chapter 26 Geographical Indications and Human Rights
26.1 Introduction
26.2 GIs as the Objects of Intellectual Property Law
26.2.1 What Is a Geographical Indication?
26.2.2 Similarities with Trademarks
26.2.3 Differences in Scope
26.3 GIs and Cultural Rights?
26.3.1 The Space for a Cultural Heritage Argument
26.3.2 The Limitations of Cultural Rights
26.3.3 Intangible Cultural Heritage and GIs
26.4 Conclusion
Part V Patents and Human Rights
Chapter 27 Expanding the Role of Morality and Public Policy in European Patent Law
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Morality and Public Policy in European Patent Law
27.2.1 The History of the Provisions in European Patent Law
27.2.2 Morality, Public Policy and Human Dignity
27.3 Interpretations of the Morality and Public Policy Provisions
27.3.1 The Interpretation of the General Provision
27.3.2 The Interpretation of Specific Provisions
27.3.2.1 EPO Case Law
27.3.2.2 CJEU Case Law
27.4 Public Interest Concerns Beyond the Morality and Public Policy Provisions
27.4.1 Gene Patents: An Illustrative Case
27.5 What Role Do Morality and Public Policy Play in Patent Law?
27.5.1 Category 1: All Commercial Exploitation of the Invention Is Considered Immoral and Against Public Policy
27.5.2 Category 2: Some but Not All Commercial Exploitation of the Invention Is Considered Immoral and Against Public Policy or Where Some Commercial Exploitation of the Invention Raises Public Interest Concerns
27.6 What Role Should Morality and Public Policy Play in Patent Law?
27.6.1 Category 1
27.6.2 Category 2
27.6.3 How the Public Interest Should Play a Role in the Rest of the Patent Life Cycle
27.7 Conclusion
Chapter 28 Personalized Medicine, Intellectual Property Rights and Human Rights
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Personalized Medicine: What Is It?
28.3 Patent Law Issues
28.3.1 Introduction
28.3.2 Patenting of Genes and Gene-Related Inventions
28.3.2.1 Europe
28.3.2.2 The United States
28.3.3 Diagnostic Methods and Methods for Treatment
28.3.3.1 Introduction
28.3.3.2 Europe
28.3.3.3 The United States
28.3.4 Further Applications of an Existing Drug
28.3.4.1 Introduction
28.3.4.2 Europe
28.3.4.3 The United States
28.3.5 Some Further Comments
28.4 Regulatory Exclusivities
28.4.1 The Principles
28.4.2 The Implications
28.5 Human Rights Issues
28.5.1 The Fundamentals
28.5.2 The Different Approaches Towards the Relationship Between Human Rights and Intellectual Property Rights
28.5.3 The Right to Health and Personalized Medicine
28.5.4 What Action Can Be Taken?
28.6 Conclusions
Chapter 29 Human DNA and Stem Cell Research: Ethical and Religious Concerns over Patenting Biotechnological Inventions in Malaysia
29.1 Introduction
29.2 The Patent Law in Malaysia
29.3 The Position of Ethics and Morality in Islam
29.4 Promoting Beneficence (Maslahah) and Genetic Research
29.5 Limits of Science: Bioethics and Lessons from the Holy Qur'an
29.6 Islam and Embryo Research
29.7 Commercialization of Human Body and Human Body Parts
29.8 Malaysian Practices on Research Involving Human Embryo and Stem Cells
29.9 Research on Human DNA
29.10 Malaysian Guidelines on the Use of Human Biological Samples
29.11 Conclusion
Chapter 30 Gene Patents and Human Rights
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Human Genetics
30.3 Human Genetics and Patent Law
30.3.1 Human Genes
30.3.2 Human Proteins
30.3.3 Genetic Diagnostic Methods
30.4 Gene Patents and Human Rights
30.4.1 Human Dignity
30.4.1.1 In General
30.4.1.2 In Patent Law
30.4.2 Right to Informed Consent
30.4.2.1 In General
30.4.2.2 In Patent Law
30.4.3 Right of Access to Health Care
30.4.3.1 In General
30.4.3.2 In Patent Law
30.5 Conclusion
Index
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