Advanced Sensor and Detection Materials
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Preface xv Part 1: Principals and Prospective 1 1 Advances in Sensors? Nanotechnology 3 Ida Tiwari and Manorama Singh 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 What is Nanotechnology? 4 1.3 Significance of Nanotechnology 5 1.4 Synthesis of Nanostructure 5 1.5 Advancements in Sensors' Research Based on Nanotechnology 5 1.6 Use of Nanoparticles 7 1.7 Use of Nanowires and Nanotubes 8 1.8 Use of Porous Silicon 11 1.9 Use of Self-Assembled Nanostructures 12 1.10 Receptor-Ligand Nanoarrays 12 1.11 Characterization of Nanostructures and Nanomaterials 13 1.12 Commercialization Efforts 14 1.13 Future Perspectives 14 References 15 2 Construction of Nanostructures: A Basic Concept Synthesis and Their Applications 19 Rizwan Wahab, Farheen Khan, Nagendra K. Kaushik, Javed Musarrat and Abdulaziz A.Al-Khedhairy 2.1 Introduction 20 2.2 Formation of Zinc Oxide Quantum Dots (ZnO-QDs) and Their Applications 24 2.3 Needle-Shaped Zinc Oxide Nanostructures and Their Growth Mechanism 30 2.4 Flower-Shaped Zinc Oxide Nanostructures and Their Growth Mechanism 37 2.5 Construction of Mixed Shaped Zinc Oxide Nanostructures and Their Growth Mechanicsm 47 2.6 Summary and Future Directions 56 References 57 3 The Role of the Shape in the Design of New Nanoparticles 61 G. Mayeli Estrada-Villegas and Emilio Bucio 3.1 Introduction 62 3.2 The Importance of Shape as Nanocarries 63 3.3 Influence of Shape on Biological Process 65 3.4 Different Shapes of Polymeric Nanoparticles 67 3.5 Different Shapes of Non-Polymeric Nanoparticles 71 3.6 Different Shapes of Polymeric Nanoparticles: Examples 74 3.7 Another Type of Nanoparticles 76 Acknowledgments 80 References 80 4 Molecularly Imprinted Polymer as Advanced Material for Development of Enantioselective Sensing Devices 87 Mahavir Prasad Tiwari and Bhim Bali Prasad 4.1 Introduction 88 4.2 Molecularly Imprinted Chiral Polymers 90 4.3 MIP-Based Chiral Sensing Devices 91 4.4 Conclusion 105 References 105 5 Role of Microwave Sintering in the Preparation of Ferrites for High Frequency Applications 111 S. Bharadwaj and S.R. Murthy 5.1 Microwaves in General 112 5.2 Microwave-Material Interactions 114 5.3 Microwave Sintering 115 5.4 Microwave Equipment 118 5.5 Kitchen Microwave Oven Basic Principle 122 5.6 Microwave Sintering of Ferrites 126 5.7 Microwave Sintering of Garnets 137 5.8 Microwave Sintering of Nanocomposites 138 References 140 Part 2: New Materials and Methods 147 6 Mesoporous Silica: Making "Sense" of Sensors 149 Surender Duhan and Vijay K. Tomer 6.1 Introduction to Sensors 150 6.2 Fundamentals of Humidity Sensors 153 6.3 Types of Humidity Sensors 154 6.4 Humidity Sensing Materials 156 6.5 Issues with Traditional Materials in Sensing Technology 158 6.6 Introduction to Mesoporous Silica 159 6.7 M41S Materials 160 6.8 SBA Materials 162 6.9 Structure of SBA-15 164 6.10 Structure Directing Agents of SBA-15 165 6.11 Factors Affecting Structural Properties and Morphology of SBA-15 169 6.12 Modification of Mesoporous Silica 174 6.13 Characterization Techniques for Mesoporous Materials 177 6.14 Humidity Sensing of SBA-15 184 6.15 Extended Family of Mesoporous Silica 185 6.16 Other Applications of SBA-15 188 6.17 Conclusion 190 References 191 7 Towards Improving the Functionalities of Porous TiO2-Au/Ag Based Materials 193 Monica Baia, Virginia Danciu, Zsolt Pap and Lucian Baia 7.1 Porous Nanostructures Based on Tio2 and Au/Ag Nanoparticles for Environmental Applications 194 7.2 Morphological Particularities of the TiO2-based Aerogels 199 7.3 Designing the TiO2 Porous Nano-architectures for Multiple Applications 201 7.4 Evaluating the Photocatalytic Performances of the TiO2-Au/Ag Porous Nanocomposites for Destroying Water Chemical Pollutants 208 7.5 Testing the Effectiveness of the TiO2-Au/Ag Porous Nanocomposites for Sensing Water Chemical Pollutants by SERS 210 7.6 In-depth Investigations of the Most Efficient Multifunctional TiO2-Au/Ag Porous Nanocomposites 216 7.7 Conclusions 221 Acknowledgments 223 References 223 8 Ferroelectric Glass-Ceramics 229 Viswanathan Kumar 8.1 Introduction 230 8.2 (Ba1-xSrx)TiO3 [BST] Glass-Ceramics 232 8.3 Glass-Ceramic System (1-y) BST: y (B2O3: x SiO2) 234 8.4 Glass-Ceramic System (1-y) BST: y (BaO: Al2O3: 2SiO2) 245 8.5 Comparision of the Two BST Glass-Ceramic Systems 254 8.6 Pb(ZrxTi1-x)TiO3[PZT] Glass-Ceramics 256 References 263 9 NASICON: Synthesis, Structure and Electrical Characterization 265 Umaru Ahmadu 9.1 Introduction 265 9.2 Theretical Survey of Superionic Conduction 268 9.3 NASICON Synthesis 271 9.4 NASICON Structure and Properties 273 9.5 Characterization Techniques 278 9.6 Experimental Results 291 9.7 Problems, Applications, and Prospects 299 9.8 Conclusion 300 Acknowledgments 300 References 300 10 Ionic Liquids 309 Arnab De, Manika Dewan and Subho Mozumdar 10.1 Ionic Liquids: What Are They? 309 10.2 Historical Background 310 10.3 Classification of Ionic Liquids 311 10.4 Properties of Ionic Liquids, Physical and Chemical 314 10.5 Synthesis Methods of Ionic Liquids 323 10.6 Characterization of Ionic Liquids 329 10.7 Major Applications of ILs 330 10.8 ILs in Organic Transformations 331 10.9 ILs for Synthesis and Stabilization of Metal Nanoparticles 339 10.10 Challenges with Ionic Liquids 344 References 346 11 Dendrimers and Hyperbranched Polymers 369 Jyotishmoy Borah and Niranjan Karak 11.1 Introduction 369 11.2 Synthesis of Dendritic Polymers 372 11.3 Characterization 385 11.4 Properties 391 11.5 Applications 398 11.6 Conclusion 403 References 404 Part 3: Advanced Structures and Properties 413 12 Theoretical Investigation of Superconducting State Parameters of Bulk Metallic Glasses 415 Aditya M. Vora 12.1 Introduction 415 12.2 Computational Methodology 417 12.3 Results and Discussion 421 12.4 Conclusions 434 References 434 13 Macroscopic Polarization and Thermal Conductivity of Binary Wurtzite Nitrides 439 Bijaya Kumar Sahoo 13.1 Introduction 440 13.2 The Macroscopic Polarization 441 13.3 Effective Elastic Constant, C44 442 13.4 Group Velocity of Phonons 443 13.5 Phonon Scattering Rates 444 13.6 Thermal Conductivity of InN 445 13.7 Summary 449 References 450 14 Experimental and Theoretical Background to Study Materials 453 Arnab De, Manika Dewan and Subho Mozumdar 14.1 Quasi-Elastic Light Scattering (Photon Correlation Spectroscopy) 453 14.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) 456 14.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy [2] 457 14.4 X-ray Diffraction (XRD) 459 14.5 UV-visible Spectroscopy 461 14.6 FT-IR Spectroscopy 462 14.7 NMR Spectroscopy 463 14.8 Mass Spectrometry 464 14.9 Vibrating Sample Magnetometer 465 References 466 15 Graphene and Its Nanocomposites for Gas Sensing Applications 467 Parveen Saini, Tapas Kuila, Sanjit Saha and Naresh Chandra Murmu 15.1 Introduction 468 15.2 Principles of Chemical Sensing by Conducting Nanocomposite Materials 470 15.3 Synthesis of Graphene and Its Nanocomposites 472 15.4 Characterization of Graphene and Its Nanocomposites 473 15.5 Chemical Sensing of Graphene and Its Nanocomposites 477 15.6 Conclusion and Future Aspects 493 Acknowledgements 494 References 494 Index 501
Chapter 1
Advances in Sensors’ Nanotechnology
Ida Tiwari1,* and Manorama Singh2
1Centre of Advanced Study, Department of Chemistry, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi
2Department of Chemistry, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya, Bilaspur (C.G.)
*Corresponding author: sensorsbhu@yahoo.co.in, idatiwari_2001@rediffmail.com
Abstract
Nowadays, sensors are considered as important instruments available particularly in health care systems, for diagnosis and monitoring of diseases as there has been a strong demand for producing highly sensitive, responsive, selective, and cost-effective sensors. As a result, research emphasis is on developing new sensing materials and technologies to amplify signal of biorecognition event. In this context, the use of nanomaterials for the construction of sensor devices constitutes one of the most exciting approaches. The extremely promising prospects of these devices accrue from the unique properties of nanomaterials. Although different nanomaterials (e.g., carbon nanotubes, nanoparticles, graphene, etc.) are employed for the construction of sensors in different fields, it is in medical diagnostics where maximum application can be made due to enhanced analytical performance with respect to other designs. With the advent of nanotechnology, research is on track to create highly selective, highly sensitive and miniaturized sensors for medical applications. Miniaturized sensors can lead to lower power consumption, reduced weight, and low cost.
Keywords: Nano-materials, diseases, miniaturized sensor, sensitive, medical devices
1.1 Introduction
A sensor is a device that receives and responds to a signal. In other words, a sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal, which can be read by an observer or by an instrument. Sensors consist of a recognition element in intimate contact with a signal transducer. Sensors that measure very small changes must have very high sensitivities. Sensors can be divided into electrochemical, optical, mass and thermal sensors based on transducer (cf. figure 1.1).
Figure 1.1 Schematic diagram of the sensor.
In recent years, with the development of nanotechnology, a lot of novel nanomaterials are being fabricated and introduced in the recognition element. Their novel properties are being gradually exposed and the use of nanomaterials for the construction of bio-sensing devices constitutes one of the most exciting approaches. Intensive research efforts have been performed in the field of designing sensors capable of providing better analytical characteristics in terms of sensitivity, selectivity, reliability, ease of fabrication and use, and low cost. The applications of nanomaterials-based (bio)sensors, which include the material science, molecular engineering, chemistry, and biotechnology have advanced greatly. They can markedly improve the sensitivity and specificity of analyte detection, and have great potential in applications such as biomolecular recognition, pathogenic diagnosis, and environment monitoring [1, 2].
This chapter is based on some of the main advances to use nanotechnology in sensors’ fields over the past few years. It explores the application prospects and discusses the various issues and approaches, with the aim of stimulating a broader interest in using nanoparticles, nanotubes, nanowires, and other different nanostructures to develop highly sensitive and successful nanomaterials-based (bio)sensor technology.
1.2 What is Nanotechnology?
The word “Nano” means dwarf in the Greek language. It is used as a prefix for any unit, like a second or a meter, and it means a billionth of that unit. A nanosecond is one billionth of a second and a nanometer is one billionth of a meter—about the length of a few atoms lined up shoulder to shoulder. The simplest definition of nanotechnology is “technology at the nano-scale.” According to the US foresight institute, “nanotechnology is a group of emerging technologies in which the structure of matter is controlled at the nanometer scale to produce novel materials and devices that have useful and unique properties.” It is also possible to define nanotechnology extensively [3].
1.3 Significance of Nanotechnology
Nanostructure science and technology is a broad and interdisciplinary area of research and development activity that has been growing explosively worldwide in the past few years.
“One nanometer is a magical point on the dimensional scale.”
All materials will show the peculiar behavior and change in their properties when they enter into the nano scale. Nanotechnology plays an important role in developing sensors. Sensitivity and other attributes can be improved by using nanomaterials in sensor construction because of their quantum size, mini size and surface effect. Incorporation of nanomaterials into sensors offers increased surface area, more efficient electron transfer from enzyme to electrode, and the ability to include additional catalytic effect.
1.4 Synthesis of Nanostructure
There are two approaches for the synthesis of nanomaterials and nanostructures (cf. figure 1.2). Top-down approach refers to starting with large-scale objects and gradually reducing their dimensions. Bottom-up approach refers to assembling the atom or molecules into smallest nanostructures by carefully controlled chemical reactions [4]. One of the ultimate goals is to precisely position building blocks in a predetermined manner so that each component can be individually addressed in the final assembly [5].
Figure 1.2 Schematic representation of the building up of nanostructures.
1.5 Advancements in Sensors’ Research Based on Nanotechnology
This is an interdisciplinary boundary between materials science and biology. It also provides a productive platform for new scientific and technological development. For the fabrication of an efficient biosensor, the selection of substrate for dispersing the sensing material decides the sensor performance. Various novel advance functional materials (e.g., gold nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), nanoparticles, and mesoporous silica materials, etc.) are being gradually applied to (bio)sensors for medical applications because of their unique physical, chemical, mechanical, magnetic, and optical properties, and they also markedly enhance the sensitivity and specificity of detection. In this chapter, we try to discuss several nanostructures that are currently used in the development of nano-biosensors, molecular sensors, drug delivery [6], tissue regeneration [2, 7], and nano-device fabrication [8].
Nano-biosensors offer a highly sensitive biorecognition device for medical applications, e.g., cancer diagnostics and other diseases, intra-operation pathological testing, proteomics, and system biology, etc. [9]. Drug delivery is a key technology for the realization of nano-medicine, and nanostructured mediated systems play an important role in improving the properties of already existing therapeutic and diagnostic modalities [10, 11]. Nanostructure materials provide high surface to volume ratio, which enhances the stability of drug molecules [12] loading and delivery as well as mass transfer properties of drugs [13].
Here, we will we focus particularly on the properties and role of different nanostructures, i.e., nanoparticles, nanotubes, mesoporous silica, etc., in various sensor biomedical technologies.
1.6 Use of Nanoparticles
Nanoparticles have numerous possible applications in sensors. These nanoparticles play different roles in different electrochemical sensing systems based on their unique properties, e.g., in immobilization of molecules, catalysis of electrochemical reactions, enhancement of electron transfer, labeling biomolecules (biomolecule tracers), and as reactants, etc.
Metal nanoparticles are used not only as a medium to retain biomolecules, but also to provide versatile labels for the amplification of biosensing events [14, 15], to enhance the amount of immobilized biomolecules in construction of sensors because of the higher surface area, small size, and biocompatibility [16]. Among metal nanoparticles, gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) play a very important role in the development of specific and sensitive assays for clinical diagnosis, bioassay, drug delivery, detection of pathogenic microorganisms in foods and the environment. AuNPs can also provide a biocompatible microenvironment for biomolecules. Use of AuNPs in development of immunosensor, marker diagnosis, and in other medical diagnostics is mainly now in interest. This is because of its biocompatible and highly sensitive nature [9]. AuNPs show a strong absorption band in the visible region due to the collective oscillations of metal conduction band electron in strong resonance with visible frequencies of light (surface Plasmon resonance, SPR). This SPR frequency can be influenced by size and shape of nanoparticles, surface charges, etc. The spherical AuNPs, size 10 nm, have the characteristic UV absorbance at 520 nm and as for gold nanorods, the absorbance will skew towards near infrared range, i.e., 600–900 nm [17]. Deng et al. in 2008 also showed that AuNPs/CNTs multilayer can also provide a suitable microenvironment to retain the enzyme activity and amplify the electrochemical signal of the product of the enzymatic reaction [18]. An immunosensor was reported by immobilizing the human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) on AuNPs doped...
