Aircraft Performance
Description
The subject of aircraft performance is an important part of the JAA Flight Crew Licensing syllabus for the examinations for commercial and airline transport licences, and this book provides a clear and authoritative text on a difficult topic.
It will also be of interest to commercial pilots for their annual standardization test and to flight planners, operations staff and airport operators.
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Person
Squadron Leader Swatton joined the Royal Air Force in 1952. He qualified as an instructor in 1961 and taught, among other subjects, the then new subject of Scheduled Performance for Group "A" aeroplanes at the Argosy Operational Conversion Unit (OCU) as one of his duties. He was posted to the Andover OCU in 1964 as the senior navigation instructor and examiner, where he continued teaching and examining aircrew in scheduled performance until 1975.
Subsequently he completed tours at the Royal Aircraft Establishment, Farnborough and at the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment, Boscombe Down. His last tour of duty, before retiring from the Royal Air Force in 1988 was at the Empire Test Pilots School where he taught scheduled performance to trainee test pilots. In 36 years of service he amassed 7500 flying hours
On retirement from the RAF he joined the instructional staff at the Professional Pilot Study Centre where one of his duties was to teach scheduled performance to the trainee pilots. Subsequently he and two of his fellow instructors started their own ground school, Ground Training Services (GTS), for private, commercial and airline pilots where he currently teaches aeroplane performance to the JAA syllabus. He is the aeroplane performance consultant for the CAA and updated the CAP 698 at the request of the CAA.
Content
Series Preface xxiii
Preface xxv
Acknowledgements xxvii
List of Abbreviations xxix
Weight and Mass xxxiii
Introduction 1
Part 1 Aerodynamic Theory 5
1 Preliminaries 7
1.1 Air Density 7
1.2 Speeds 9
1.3 Engine Performance 10
Self-Assessment Exercise 1 17
2 Level Flight Aerodynamics 19
2.1 Stability 19
2.2 Angle of Attack and Pitch Angle 19
2.3 The Four Forces 21
2.4 Mass 21
2.5 Lift 22
2.6 Drag 24
2.7 Analysis of the Total Drag Curve 27
2.8 The Effect of the Variables on Drag 30
2.9 The CL v CD Polar Diagram 32
2.10 Analysis of the Lift/Drag Ratio 33
2.11 Thrust 34
2.12 Analysis of the Thrust Curves 34
2.13 The Effect of the Variables on Thrust 36
2.14 Power 40
2.15 Analysis of the Power Curves 40
2.16 The Effect of the Variables on Power 42
2.17 Summary 45
Self-Assessment Exercise 2 47
3 Take-off and Climb Aerodynamics 53
3.1 Take-off 53
3.2 The Effect of the Variables on Take-off 54
3.3 Climbing Flight 55
3.4 The Effect of the Variables on the Climb 56
3.5 Climb Gradient 56
3.6 Rate of Climb 63
3.7 Aircraft Ceiling 64
3.8 Climb Regimes 70
Self-Assessment Exercise 3 75
4 Cruise Control 83
4.1 Specific Air Range (SAR) 83
4.2 Buffet 84
4.3 The Buffet Onset Boundary Chart 85
4.4 Cost Index 87
4.5 Turns 87
4.6 Types of Cruise 88
4.7 Range and Endurance: General 89
4.8 Cruise Techniques for Piston-engined Aeroplanes 91
4.9 Cruise Techniques for Turbo-prop Aeroplanes 92
4.10 Cruise Techniques for Jet Aeroplanes 94
4.11 Summary 99
Self-Assessment Exercise 4 101
5 Descent Aerodynamics 109
5.1 The Forces in a Descent 109
5.2 Gliding for Maximum Range 110
5.3 Gliding for Maximum Endurance 113
5.4 Descent Regimes 114
Self-Assessment Exercise 5 115
Part 2 Scheduled Performance Theory 119
6 Performance Planning 121
6.1 Regulations and Requirements 121
6.2 The Performance Class System 122
6.3 Performance Legislation 123
6.4 Aeroplane Performance Levels 125
6.5 Performance Planning 125
6.6 Altimeter Corrections 129
6.7 Flight Manuals 130
6.8 Performance Calculations and Limitations 132
6.9 Noise Abatement Procedures 136
Self-Assessment Exercise 6 139
7 Aerodrome Geometry 143
7.1 Field Lengths Available 143
7.2 Take-off Run Available (TORA) 144
7.3 Obstacles 145
7.4 Stopway 146
7.5 Accelerate/Stop Distance Available (ASDA) 147
7.6 Clearway 148
7.7 Take-off Distance Available (TODA) 150
7.8 Balanced and Unbalanced Field Lengths 150
7.9 Field-Length-Limited Take-off Mass Calculations 152
7.10 Runway Alignment Reduction 152
7.11 Runway Slope Calculation 155
7.12 The Effect of Runway Slope on Obstacle Calculations 156
7.13 Landing Distance Available (LDA) 157
7.14 Runway End Safety Area (RESA) 158
Self-Assessment Exercise 7 159
8 Runway Surfaces 163
8.1 Aerodrome Pavement Strength 163
8.2 The Pavement Strength Reporting System 164
8.3 Aircraft Classification Number (ACN) 166
8.4 Contaminated Surfaces 166
8.5 Braking Coefficient of Friction 168
8.6 Surface Contaminants 170
8.7 The Effect of Runway Contamination 172
8.8 Hydroplaning 178
Self-Assessment Exercise 8 181
9 The Variables 185
9.1 Air Density 185
9.2 Wind Component 187
9.3 Aeroplane Flap Setting 190
9.4 Aeroplane Mass 191
9.5 Runway Slope and Surface 192
9.6 Miscellaneous Variables 193
9.7 The Maximum Take-off Mass 195
9.8 Calculations 196
Self-Assessment Exercise 9 199
10 Speeds 205
10.1 General 205
10.2 Summary 206
10.3 Stalling Speeds 207
10.4 Take-off Speeds 209
10.5 V Speeds and Take-off Field Lengths 220
10.6 Climb Speeds 221
10.7 Control Speeds 223
10.8 Landing Speeds 224
10.9 Other Significant Speeds 227
Self-Assessment Exercise 10 231
Part 3 Scheduled Performance Practice 239
11 Class 'B' Take-off 241
11.1 General Regulations 241
11.2 Take-off Speeds 242
11.3 Take-off Requirements 243
11.4 Take-off Distance Requirements 244
11.5 Class 'B' Take-off Calculations 245
Self-Assessment Exercise 11 253
12 Class 'B' Take-off Climb 257
12.1 General Requirements 257
12.2 Climb Minimum-Gradient Requirements 258
12.3 Obstacle Clearance Requirements 259
12.4 Take-off Climb Calculations 263
12.5 Climb Calculations - SEP1 & MEP1 265
Self-Assessment Exercise 12 273
13 Class 'B' En-route and Landing 277
13.1 En-route 277
13.2 Landing 280
Self-Assessment Exercise 13 293
14 Class 'A': Take-off Theory 297
14.1 General Regulations 297
14.2 Field-Length Requirements 299
14.3 Class 'A' FLL TOM Analysis 305
14.4 Field-Length Requirements Analysis 306
14.5 Rapid Calculation Methods 316
Self-Assessment Exercise 14 323
15 Take-off Calculations 327
15.1 Field-Length-Limited Take-off Mass 327
15.2 The Aeroplane Flight Manual (AFM) 327
15.3 CAP 698 Section 4 328
15.4 Take-off Mass and Distance Calculations 328
15.5 Take-off Abnormalities 336
15.6 The Maximum Take-off Mass 344
Self-Assessment Exercise 15 345
16 Class 'A' Take-off Climb 349
16.1 The Take-off Climb Requirements 349
16.2 The Relationship of NFP to GFP 353
16.3 Climb-Limited TOM 357
16.4 MRJT Climb-Limited TOM Calculations 362
16.5 Obstacle Clearance 363
16.6 MRJT Obstacle-Limited TOM Calculations 365
16.7 Planned Turns 367
16.8 The Performance-Limited Take-off Mass 371
Self-Assessment Exercise 16 373
17 Class 'A' En-Route 381
17.1 En-route Required Navigation Performance 381
17.2 Descent Gradient Diminishment Requirements 382
17.3 Terminal Aerodromes 382
17.4 En-Route Requirements for all Class 'A' Aircraft 383
17.5 En-Route Requirements for Three and Four-engined Aircraft 384
17.5.1 Two-engines-inoperative En-route Requirements 384
17.5.1.1 Operational Requirements 384
17.5.1.2 Route Restriction 384
17.5.1.3 Over-water Speed 385
17.6 En-Route Requirements for Twin-engined Aircraft 385
17.7 Maximum Distance from an Adequate Aerodrome (Non-ETOPS Aeroplanes) 386
17.8 ETOPS Aeroplanes 387
17.9 Obstacle Clearance Requirements: All Class 'A' Aeroplanes 389
17.10 Ceilings 390
17.11 Drift-Down Technique 391
17.12 Stabilizing Altitudes 392
17.13 Route Profile Comparisons 393
17.14 En-route Alternate Aerodromes 395
17.15 Fuel Jettisoning 395
17.16 En-route Calculations 397
Self-Assessment Exercise 17 405
18 Class 'A' Landing 409
18.1 The Landing Regulations 409
18.2 The Landing Field-Length Requirements 410
18.3 Approaches 415
18.4 Short-field Landings 415
18.5 The Climb-Limited Landing Mass 416
18.6 Climb-Limited Landing Mass Calculations 417
18.7 Normal Field-Length Limited Landing Mass Calculations 419
18.8 Scheduled Landing Mass Calculations 421
18.9 The Quick Turnaround Limit 425
Self-Assessment Exercise 18 427
Part 4 Conclusion 431
19 Definitions 433
19.1 Speeds 433
19.2 Distances 439
19.3 Altitude, Elevation and Height 441
19.4 Weight and Mass 442
19.5 ETOPS 444
19.6 Obstacles 444
19.7 Performance 445
19.8 Power Unit(s) 445
19.9 Surfaces and Areas 446
19.10 Temperature 446
19.11 Formulae used in Performance 447
20 Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises 449
Self-Assessment Exercise 1 449
Self-Assessment Exercise 2 449
Self-Assessment Exercise 3 450
Self-Assessment Exercise 4 452
Self-Assessment Exercise 5 452
Self-Assessment Exercise 6 452
Self-Assessment Exercise 7 454
Self-Assessment Exercise 8 454
Self-Assessment Exercise 9 455
Self-Assessment Exercise 10 455
Self-Assessment Exercise 11 459
Self-Assessment Exercise 12 462
Self-Assessment Exercise 13 464
Self-Assessment Exercise 14 466
Self-Assessment Exercise 15 470
Self-Assessment Exercise 16 478
Self-Assessment Exercise 17 482
Self-Assessment Exercise 18 485
Bibliography 487
Index 489
List of Abbreviations
- A & AEE
- The Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment
- aal
- above aerodrome level
- ACS
- Air Conditioning System
- ACN
- Aircraft Classification Number
- AFM
- Aeroplane Flight Manual
- agl
- above ground level
- AIC
- Aeronautical Information Circular
- AIP
- Aeronautical Information Package
- amsl
- above mean sea level
- ANO
- The Air Navigation Order
- AN(G)R
- The Air Navigation (General) Regulations
- APS
- Aircraft Prepared for Service
- ARB
-
Air Registration Board
Airworthiness Requirements Board
- ASD
- Accelerate/Stop Distance
- ASDA
- Accelerate/Stop Distance Available
- ASDR
- Accelerate/Stop Distance Required
- ASIR
- Airspeed Indicator Reading
- ATC
- Air Traffic Control
- AUM
- All-Up Mass
- AUW
- All-Up Weight
- BCAR
- British Civil Airworthiness Requirements
- BE
- Brake Energy
- BRP
- Brake Release Point
- C of A
- Certificate of Airworthiness
- C of P
- Centre of Pressure
- CAA
- Civil Aviation Authority
- CAP
- Civil Aviation Publication
- CAS
- Calibrated Airspeed
- CBR
- Californian Bearing Ratio
- CDA
- Mean Coefficient of Drag in the Air
- CDG
- Mean Coefficient of Drag on the Ground
- CG
- Centre of Gravity
- CP
- Critical Point
- CS
- Certification Standards Document
- DOE
- Department of the Environment (now the Department of Environment, Trade and Regions, DETR)
- EAS
- Equivalent Airspeed
- EASA
- European Aviation Safety Agency
- EGT
- Exhaust Gas Temperature
- EPR
- Engine Pressure Ratio
- EROPS
- Extended Range Operations
- ESWL
- Equivalent Single-Wheel Load
- ETOPS
- Extended Range Twin Operations
- FAA
- Federal Aviation Administration
- FAR
- Federal Aviation Regulations
- FUSS
- Flaps-Up Safety Speed
- GFF
- Gross Fuel Flow
- GFP
- Gross Flight Path
- G/S
- Groundspeed
- hPa
- hectopascal
- HPC
- Horizontal Plane Clearway
- IAS
- Indicated Airspeed
- IAT
- Indicated Air Temperature
- ICAO
- International Civil Aviation Organisation
- ILS
- Instrument Landing System
- ISA
- International Standard Atmosphere
- JAA
- Joint Aviation Authority
- JAR
- Joint Aviation Requirements
- JBI
- James Brake Index
- kg
- kilogram(s)
- km
- kilometre(s)
- kt
- nautical miles per hour (knots)
- LCN
- Load Classification Number
- LCG
- Load Classification Group
- LDA
- Landing Distance Available
- LDR
- Landing Distance Required
- MAT
- Mass-Altitude-Temperature
- MMO
- Maximum Operating Mach Number
- MPa
- Megapascal
- MTMA
- Maximum Total Mass Authorised
- MZFM
- Maximum Zero Fuel Mass
- NADP
- Noise Abatement Departure Procedure
- NFP
- Net Flight Path
- nm
- nautical mile(s)
- NOTAM
- Notice to Airmen
- OAT
- Outside Air Temperature
- OD
- Ordnance Datum
- ODM
- Operating Data Manual
- OFZ
- Obstacle-Free Zone
- PCN
- Pavement Classification Number
- PET
- Point of Equal Time
- PFSR
- Power Failure Speed Ratio
- psi
- pounds per square inch
- PSR
- Point of Safe Return
- QFE
- The altimeter sub-scale setting that causes the altimeter to read zero when on the ground
- QNE
- The indicated height on the altimeter at the aerodrome datum point with the altimeter sub-scale set at 1013.2 hPa
- QNH
- The altimeter sub-scale setting that causes the altimeter to read the elevation above mean sea level when on the ground
- RCR
- Runway Condition Reading
- RCPC
- Runway Continued Plane Clearway
- RESA
- Runway End Safety Area
- RNP
- Required Navigation Performance
- RTOG
- Regulated Take-Off Graph
- RZ
- Reference Zero
- SAR
- Specific Air Range
- SFC
- Specific Fuel Consumption
- SIWL
- Single Isolated Wheel Loading
- TAS
- True Airspeed
- TAT
- Total Air Temperature
- TOCS
- Take-Off Climb Surface
- TOD
- Take-Off Distance, Top of Descent
- TODA
- Take-Off Distance Available
- TODR
- Take-Off Distance Required
- TGT
- Turbine Gas Temperature
- TOM
- Take-Off Mass
- TOR
- Take-Off Run
- TORA
- Take-Off Run Available
- TORR
- Take-Off Run Required
- TOW
- Take-Off Weight
- V1
- Decision speed
- V2min
- Minimum take-off safety speed
- V3
- All-engines-operating steady initial climb speed
- V4
- All-engines-operating steady take-off climb speed at flap retraction height
- V
- The true airspeed (TAS)
- VA
- Design manoeuvring speed
- VAT
- The target threshold speed
- VAT0
- The target threshold speed with all power units operating
- VAT1
- The target threshold speed with one power unit inoperative
- VC
- The calibrated airspeed (CAS)
- VE
- The equivalent airspeed (EAS)
- VEF
- The speed at the time of assumed engine failure
- VFTO
- The final take-off climbing speed with one power unit inoperative
- VGO
- The lowest decision speed from which a continued take-off is possible with TODA
- VI
- The Indicated Airspeed (IAS)
- VIMD
- The velocity of minimum drag as an IAS
- VIMP
- The velocity of minimum power as an IAS
- VLE
- The maximum speed with the undercarriage (landing gear) extended
- VLO
- The maximum speed at which the undercarriage (landing gear) may be operated
- VLOF
- Lift-off speed
- VMBE
- The maximum brake energy speed
- VMC
- The minimum control speed with the critical power unit inoperative
- VMCA
- The minimum control speed in the air with the critical power unit inoperative
- VMCG
- The minimum control speed on the ground with the critical power unit inoperative
- VMCL
- The minimum control speed on the approach to land
- VMD
- The velocity of minimum drag as a TAS
- VMO
- The maximum operating speed
- VMP
- The velocity of minimum power as a TAS
- VMS
- The minimum stalling speed
- VMS0
- The minimum stalling speed with the flaps in the landing setting
- VMS1
- The minimum stalling speed for the case under consideration
- VMU
- The minimum unstick speed
- VNE
- Never exceed speed
- VP
- The speed at which the aeroplane will hydroplane (aquaplane)
- VR
- Rotation speed
- VRA
- The rough-air or turbulence speed
- VREF
- The reference landing speed
- VS
- Stalling speed
- VSR0
- Reference stalling speed in the landing configuration
- VSR1
- Reference stalling speed for the configuration under consideration
- VS1g
- Stalling speed at 1g
- VS0
- The stalling speed with the flaps at the landing setting
- VS1
- The stalling speed for the configuration under consideration
- VSTOP
- The highest decision speed from which the aeroplane can stop within ASDA
- VSW
- The speed at which the onset of the natural or artificial stall warning activates
- VT
- Threshold speed
- VTmax
- The maximum threshold speed
- VTmin
- The minimum threshold speed
- VUS
- The speed at which the main wheels leave the ground on take-off
- VX
- The speed at which the maximum gradient of climb will be achieved
- VY
- The speed at which...
