Microplastics in the Environment
Description
Enables readers to assess, manage and prevent damage from the environment's biggest enemy: microplastics
Microplastics in the Environment addresses the biggest unresolved pollution issue: microplastics accumulating in the environment at a rapidly growing rate, giving rise to severe ecological stress and novel diseases in both aquatic and terrestrial organisms. This book is a one-stop resource that ties together the latest developments in this fast-moving field, including analytical techniques, risk assessment methods and predictive approaches, and evaluates different strategies that make it possible to minimize and redress microplastics pollution in the near and distant future.
The book is organized into three main parts. Part one explains the fundamental ideas underlying microplastics, including their classification, major sources, detection and characterisation, as well as risk assessment methods. The second part covers the fate and transport of microplastics in various environmental domains, their interaction with ecosystems and the exposure of humans to environment-borne microplastics. The final part surveys current and future approaches to limit and remove the environmental effects of microplastics, from replacement of plastics with biodegradable substitutes to more efficient recycling of plastics to their active removal and remediation.
Microplastics in the Environment includes information on:
- Microplastics' interaction with agricultural crops, the food and construction industries and water and solid waste pollution control systems
- Microplastics in microbial communities, crops and soil and the subsequent impacts on microbial metabolism, plant growth and geo-chemical properties of soil, respectively
- Consumption of microplastics by aquatic life and consequent effects of microplastics on the development of aquatic organisms including corals, invertebrates and marine and freshwater biota
- Global strategies, existing regulations and policies focused on microplastics management
With its emphasis on management and remediation, Microplastics in the Environment is a valuable resource for environmental scientists, government agencies and researchers working in the field of microplastics pollution.
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Persons
Rao Y. Surampalli is President and Chief Executive Officer of the Global Institute for Energy, Environment and Sustainability (GIEES) in Lenexa, USA.
Tian C. Zhang is Professor in the department of Civil Engineering at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln (UNL), USA.
Bashir M. Al-Hashimi is Vice-President for Research and Innovation at King's College London, UK.
Chih-Ming Kao is Professor in the Institute of Environmental Engineering at the National Sun Yat-sen University in Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
Makarand M. Ghangrekar is Institute Chair Professor in the Department of Civil Engineering at the Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, India.
Puspendu Bhunia is Professor at the School of Infrastructure, Indian Institute of Technology Bhubaneswar, India.
Sovik Das is Assistant Professor at the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, India.
Content
Preface xvii
Notes on Editors xix
Section I The Existence and Characterization of Microplastics 1
1 Introduction and Book Overview 3
Yasser Bashir, Nehaun Zargar, Neha Sharma, Almeenu Rasheed, Sovik Das, Makarand M. Ghangrekar, Puspendu Bhunia, Bashir M. Al-Hashimi, Rao Y. Surampalli, Tian C. Zhang, and Chih-Ming Kao
1.1 Background and Definition 3`
1.2 Impacts of MPs on the Environment, Society, and Economics 7
1.3 Solutions, Knowledge Gaps, and Challenges 9
1.4 Policies and Practices to Regulate MPs 10
1.5 Book Structure and Overview of Chapters 11
1.6 Conclusion 12
References 13
2 Classifications and Physiochemical Properties of Microplastics 17
Sudeep Kumar Mishra, Sanket Dey Chowdhury, Puspendu Bhunia, Arindam Sarkar, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang
2.1 Introduction 17
2.2 Structural Properties 21
2.3 Physical Properties 28
2.4 Chemical Properties 31
2.5 Thermal Stability 33
2.6 Conclusion 34
References 35
3 Degradation of Plastics and Formation of Primary and Secondary Microplastics 43
Sudeep Kumar Mishra, Sanket Dey Chowdhury, Puspendu Bhunia, Arindam Sarkar, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang
3.1 Introduction 43
3.2 Physical and Mechanical Degradation 46
3.3 Chemical Degradation 50
3.4 Biological Degradation 51
3.5 Degradation Pathway 54
3.6 Degradation Products and Byproducts 58
3.7 Toxicity of Products and Byproducts 59
3.8 Conclusion 61
References 61
4 Advanced Techniques for Sampling, Quantification, and Characterization of Microplastics 69
Chathura Dhanasinghe, Chih-Ming Kao, Pu-Fong Liu, Rao Y. Surampalli, Tian C. Zhang, and Bashir M. Al-Hashimi
4.1 Screening 69
4.2 Sampling and Extraction 71
4.3 Characterization for Size, Shape, and Chemical Composition 84
4.4 Quantification 88
4.5 Harmonizing Approaches and Valuable Minimal Technical Criteria and Specification 90
4.6 Quality Assurance/Quality Control 95
4.7 Conclusion 97
References 98
5 Technologies for Polymer Identification and Monitoring of Microplastics Distribution 107
Akhil Gupta and Pratik Kumar
5.1 Introduction 107
5.2 Instrumentational Methods to Study Microplastics in Different Matrices 112
5.3 Technologies for Measuring Nano-Microplastics and Determining the Relative Contributions of Particles of Varying Size, Shape and Chemical Composition 115
5.4 Distribution and Monitoring of Microplastics 117
5.5 Review of Existing Monitoring Programs for Marine Microplastics 119
5.6 Other Techniques for Monitoring 127
5.7 Conclusions 130
References 130
6 Characterizing Microplastics in the Context of Risk Assessment 135
Akash Tripathi, Makarand M. Ghangrekar, and Rao Y. Surampalli
6.1 Introduction 135
6.2 The TK/TD of MPs in a Representative Organism 136
6.3 Determining the Particle Size Range Where Any Toxicity Resides 142
6.4 Identifying Potential Uncertainties and Concerns 144
6.5 Determining Relative Levels of Confidence Regarding Toxicological Data 145
6.6 Conclusion 148
References 148
7 Understanding Environmental and Socio-economic Risks Associated with Microplastics 153
Azhan Ahmad, Monali Priyadarshini, Makarand M. Ghangrekar, and Rao Y. Surampalli
7.1 Background 153
7.2 Economic Impacts 154
7.3 Social Impacts 155
7.4 Environmental Sensitivity and Variability of Microplastic 157
7.5 Toxicological Impact of Microplastics on Aquatic Organisms 159
7.6 Strategies for Managing Microplastic in the Environment 161
7.7 Conclusion and Way-forward 162
References 163
Section II Microplastics in Different Compartments and Their Effects on Environments and Humane Society 167
8 Microplastics in the Environment: Sources, Distribution, Fate, and Transport 169
Hua-Bin Zhong, Ying-Liang Yu, Chih-Ming Kao, Rao Y. Surampalli, Tian C. Zhang, and Bashir M. Al-Hashimi
8.1 MPs in the Aquatic Environment (Surface/Ground Waters and Ocean) 169
8.2 MPs in the Terrestrial Environment (Soil and Sediment) 171
8.3 MPs in the Polar Region 173
8.4 MPs in the Atmospheric Environment and Transboundary Transport 175
8.5 MPs in Food and Agricultural Crops 179
8.6 MPs Associated with the Construction Industry 180
8.7 MPs in Urban Environmental Management Systems 183
8.8 Contaminants Released from Aged MPs 186
8.9 Fate/Transport and Behavior of MPs in Pollution Control Systems 188
8.10 Conclusion 200
References 200
9 Modeling the Fate and Transport of Microplastics in Various Aquatic Environmental Compartments 207
Mahima John Horta, Yerramilli Sai Rama Krishna, N. Seetha, and Pritha Chatterjee
9.1 Introduction 207
9.2 Transport Mechanisms of Microplastics in the Environment 210
9.3 Modeling the Fate and Transport of Microplastics in Riverine Environment 215
9.4 Modeling the Fate and Transport of Microplastics in Estuaries 226
9.5 Modeling the Fate and Transport of Microplastics in Marine Environment 231
9.6 Modeling the Fate and Transport of Microplastics in the Subsurface 236
9.7 Conclusions 243
Acknowledgments 243
Nomenclature 244
References 247
10 Ecological Impacts of Microplastics and Their Additives: Exposure Risk/Toxicity Assessment and Fate/Transport of Persistent, Bio-Accumulative and Toxic Substances 259
Qamaruz Zaman Khaki and Pratik Kumar
10.1 Introduction 259
10.2 Creating Standardized Toxicity Tests for MPs 260
10.3 Dose-Response Analysis and Formulation of Standards 264
10.4 Acute and Chronic Toxicity of Microplastics 265
10.5 Chemical Risk Posed by Ingested Microplastics 265
10.6 Development of Health-Based Threshold 266
10.7 Effects of Exposure: Microplastics Transferred to the Consumers 266
10.8 Are Microplastics Vectors (for Organisms or Chemical Pollutants in the Environment)? - Sorption of Potentially Toxic Pollutants on Microplastics 269
10.9 Connect Microplastics to Existing or Novel Adverse Outcome Pathways 269
10.10 The Relevant Receptors 271
10.11 Exposure Pathways 272
10.12 Exposure Pathway to MP Via Ingestion 273
10.13 Exposure Pathway to MP Via Inhalation 273
10.14 Exposure Pathway to MP Via Dermal Contact 273
10.15 Toxicokinetic/Dynamic Processes 274
10.16 MPs Plus Chemicals/Nanomaterials/Pathogens Attached/Sorbed on them - Ecological Effects of Chemical Contaminants Adsorbed to Microplastics 274
10.17 Interrelationships Among Different Factors 276
10.18 Interaction of Microplastics with PBTs and Other Emerging Contaminants 276
10.19 Conclusion 277
References 278
11 Interactions of Microplastics with Microbial Communities and the Food Web/Plants 283
Santosh Kumar, Akash Tripathi, Shraddha Yadhav, Srishti Mishra, and Makarand M. Ghangrekar
11.1 Introduction 283
11.2 Interactions of MPs with Natural Organic Materials, Crops, and Plants 285
11.3 Interaction Between Microbial Community and MPs 291
11.4 Effect of MPs on Metabolic Activities of the Organisms 295
11.5 Leaching of MPs from Dumpsites to Soil 295
11.6 MPs from Silage Film for Storage of Silage 296
11.7 Change in the Geo-chemical Properties of Soil due to MPs 296
11.8 Effect of MPs on the Food Web and Food Chain 297
11.9 Are Biodegradable Plastics Less Negative Than the Others? 298
11.10 Biostimulation by Nutrients 299
11.11 Conclusion 300
References 300
12 Environmental and Toxicological Effects of Microplastics on Aquatic Ecosystems 311
Jin-Min Li, Hua-Bin Zhong, Chih-Ming Kao, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang
12.1 Background 311
12.2 Sources of MPs in Aquatic Environments 312
12.3 Consumption of MPs by Aquatic Organisms and Increase in Aquatic Leaching Rate 316
12.4 Transport of MPs in the Aquatic Trophic Level 317
12.5 Occurrence of MPs in Aquatic Ecosystems 318
12.6 Effects of MPs on Freshwater Ecosystems 321
12.7 Effects of MPs in Marine Ecosystems 325
12.8 Increase in Toxicity and Impacts on Biodiversity 334
12.9 Conclusions 336
References 336
13 Human Exposures to Microplastics: Impact of Different Routes 347
Sanket Dey Chowdhury, Sudeep Kumar Mishra, Puspendu Bhunia, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang
13.1 Introduction 347
13.2 Pathways of Human Exposure to Microplastics 349
13.3 Toxic Effects of Microplastics on Human Beings 356
13.4 Use of Biomarkers to Elucidate Microplastic Toxicity 362
13.5 Case Studies on Human Exposure 366
13.6 Conclusions 368
References 368
Section III Removal, Control, and Management of Microplastics 383
14 Plastic Pollution Management-Innovative Solutions for Plastic Waste 385
Saikat Sinha Ray, Randeep Singh, Mahesh Ganesapillai, and Young-Ho Ahn
14.1 Introduction 385
14.2 Design and Production 390
14.3 Packaging and Distribution 394
14.4 Disposal 402
14.5 System-based Approaches 407
14.6 Conclusion 410
References 411
15 Preventing Secondary Sources of Microplastics in the Environment 417
Zaid Mushtaq Bhat, Asif Farooq, Mavra Farooq, Mariha Feroz, and Khalid Muzamil Gani
15.1 Introduction 417
15.2 Reducing Usage of Plastics 418
15.3 Recycle and Reuse of Microplastics 419
15.4 Chemical Upcycling of Polymers 424
15.5 Polymer Construction and Deconstruction 427
15.6 Cleaning of Plastic Waste from Environment 428
15.7 Proper Monitoring of Plastic Waste 430
15.8 Different Multiple Thresholds the Tiered Framework 434
15.9 Conclusion 435
15.10 Future Perspective 436
References 436
16 Reducing and Eliminating Plastic Waste via Societal Changes 447
Pu-Fong Liu, Chathura Dhanasinghe, Ying-Liang Yu, Chih-Ming Kao, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang
16.1 Introduction 447
16.2 The Importance of Consumer Culture and Behavior 448
16.3 Reduction, Substitution, and Control of Microplastics From Human Usage 453
16.4 Future Directions 464
16.5 Conclusion 465
References 465
17 Technologies for Removal and Remediation of Microplastics 469
Sanket Dey Chowdhury, Sudeep Kumar Mishra, Puspendu Bhunia, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang
17.1 Introduction 469
17.2 Microplastic Remediation Technologies 470
17.3 Conclusions 530
References 532
18 Catalysis for the Upcycling of Polymers 545
Debanjali Dey, Manisha Sain, Zahoor Manzoor, and Shamik Chowdhury
18.1 Introduction 545
18.2 Considerations for Substrates and Characterization 547
18.3 Application of Bio-Based Catalysts 549
18.4 Application of Electrocatalysts 550
18.5 Application of Chemical Catalysts 553
18.6 Conclusion 555
References 555
19 Biodegradable Bioplastics 559
Neha Sharma, Koran Barman, Nehaun Zargar, Almeenu Rasheed, and Sovik Das
19.1 Production of Bioplastics 559
19.2 Standards and Guidelines to Test the Biodegradability of Bioplastics 561
19.3 Application of Bioplastics 563
19.4 Limitations of Bioplastic 564
19.5 Environmental Sustainability of Bioplastics 566
19.6 Economic Assessment of Bioplastics 569
19.7 Comparison of Bioplastic with Polymer-Based Plastic 570
19.8 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 571
References 572
20 Global Strategies/Policies and Citizen Science for Microplastic Management 577
Jin-Min Li, Ming-Fang Yu, Chih-Ming Kao, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang
20.1 Guidelines for Pollutant Control at Source 577
20.2 Enforcement of Legislative Measures 580
20.3 Existing Regulations and Acts in Global Scenarios 583
20.4 Public Perception and Participation 587
20.5 Community Analysis-Based Models 591
20.6 Conclusions 593
References 594
21 Life Cycle and Techno-Economic Assessment of Microplastics Remediation Technologies and Policies 599
Almeenu Rasheed, Divyanshu Sikarwar, and Sovik Das
21.1 Introduction 599
21.2 Technological Efficiency and Social Impact 599
21.3 Economic Aspect and Cost-Benefit Analysis 601
21.4 LCA of Treatment Techniques 604
21.5 Conclusion 608
References 608
22 Case Studies on Microplastic Contamination with a Focus on the Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic 611
Lourembam Nongdren, Sai Lahar Reddy, Biswajit Samal, Kumar Raja Vanapalli, and Brajesh K. Dubey
22.1 Introduction 611
22.2 Microplastic Contamination 612
22.3 COVID-19 Pandemic: Impact on Waste Management 615
22.4 Interactions Between Microplastics and COVID-19 616
22.5 Case Studies: COVID-19-Related Microplastic Pollution 617
22.6 Environmental Consequences of Microplastics and COVID-19 618
22.7 Human Health Risks 621
22.8 Mitigation Strategies 622
22.9 Conclusion 624
References 625
Index 629
Notes on Editors
Dr. Rao Y. Surampalli, PhD, PE, BCEE, Hon BC.WRE, F.WEF, F.AAAS, Dist.F.IWA, M.EASA, Dist.M.ASCE, NAC, is President and Chief Executive Officer of the Global Institute for Energy, Environment and Sustainability (GIEES). He was with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) for 30 years and retired as an engineer director. He received MS and PhD degrees in environmental engineering from Oklahoma State University and Iowa State University, respectively. He is a registered professional engineer in the branches of civil and environmental engineering, and also a Board Certified Environmental Engineer (BCEE) and Water Resources Engineer (BC.WRE) of the American Academy of Environmental Engineers (AAEE) and the American Academy of Water Resources Engineers (AAWRE). He is an adjunct professor in seven universities and Distinguished/Honorary Visiting Professor in six (6) well-known universities abroad. Currently, he serves, or has served on over 85 national and international committees, review panels, or advisory boards including the ASCE National Committee on Energy, Environment and Water Policy. He also served as President of Civil Engineering Certification (CEC), Inc., an entity of ASCE for board certification of various specialties within civil engineering. He is a Distinguished Engineering Alumnus of both the Oklahoma State and Iowa State universities, and an elected member of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts (EASA), an elected member of the U.S. National Academy of Construction (NAC), an elected fellow of the Water Environment Federation and Distinguished Fellow of International Water Association, an elected fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (F.AAAS), and a Distinguished Member of the American Society of Civil Engineers. He also is Editor-in-Chief of the ASCE Journal of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste, past Vice-Chair of Editorial Board of Water Environment Research Journal and Editor-in-Chief of Nanotechnology for Environmental Engineering Journal (Springer Nature), and serves on the editorial boards of 8 other refereed environmental journals. He has authored over 400 articles in refereed journals, 22 approved patents, 27 refereed books and 183 refereed book chapters, 250 national and international conference presentations and proceedings, and presented over 160 plenary/keynote or invited presentations worldwide. He has received over 30 national awards/honors.
Dr. Tian C. Zhang, PhD, PE, BCEE, BC.WRE, F.ASCE, F.AAAS, Dist.M.ASCE, is a professor in the Department of Civil Engineering at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln (UNL), USA. He received his BS degree in civil engineering from Wuhan University of Technology, China, in 1982, his MS degree in environmental engineering from Tsinghua University, China, in 1985, and his PhD in environmental engineering from the University of Cincinnati in 1994. He joined the UNL faculty in August 1994. Professor Zhang teaches courses related to water/wastewater treatment, remediation of hazardous wastes, and nonpoint pollution control. Professor Zhang's research involves fundamentals and applications of nanotechnology and conventional technology for water, wastewater, and storm water treatment and management, remediation of contaminated environments, and detection/control of emerging contaminants in the environment. Professor Zhang has published more than 250 peer-reviewed journal papers, 80 book chapters, and 16 books since 1994. Professor Zhang is a member of the Water Environmental Federation (WEF), and Association of Environmental Engineering and Science Professors (AEESP). Professor Zhang is a Diplomate of Water Resources Engineer (BC.WRE) of the American Academy of Water Resources Engineers, Board Certified Environmental Engineers (BCEE) of the American Academy of Environmental Engineers, Distinguished Member of American Society of Civil Engineers (Dist.M.ASCE), and Fellow of American Association for the Advancement of Science (F.AAAS), and Member of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts (EASA). Professor Zhang is the associate editor of Journal of Environmental Engineering (since 2007), Journal of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste (since 2006), and the managing editor of Water Environment Research (since 2008). He has been a registered professional engineer in Nebraska, USA, since 2000.
Bashir M. Al-Hashimi, CBE, FREng, FRS, FIEEE, FIET, FBCS, is the Vice President (Research & Innovation) and ARM Professor of Computer Engineering at King's College London in the United Kingdom. He is internationally recognized for his sustained and pioneering research contributions to advanced semiconductor chips test, energy-efficient embedded systems and the emerging research field of energy harvesting computing. His research has led to substantive innovations in enabling hardware and software technologies with application in mobile and digital electronic devices. A highly cited researcher, he has published more than 350 technical papers, with eight best paper awards at international conferences and has authored/coauthored and edited five books and eight book chapters, with his most recent as Many-core Computing: Hardware and Software, IET press (2019). He has overseen the successful supervision of 45 PhD students and has secured over £25m in external research funding from UK research funders and industry. The impact of his computer engineering research and technology transfer has been significant in both academia and industry across the world and it has led to numerous distinctions. He was cofounder (2008) and codirector of the ARM-Southampton Research Centre, which is an industry-university collaborative center involving the University of Southampton and ARM, recognized as an exemplar in the UK for industry-academia collaboration. Bashir has led successfully a number of large EPSRC-funded multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary research consortia, including the Holistic battery-free electronics project and the recently completed £5.6m EPSRC PRiME Programme Grant, which included four universities and five industrial partners. He was awarded in 2020 the UK Institution of Engineering and Technology's Faraday Medal for contributions to manufacturing test of electronics systems (the Institution's highest honor and one of the most world's most prestigious international awards for engineers and scientists). In 2018, he received one of the highest national UK honors when he was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) by Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II for sustained services to industry and engineering. He was appointed to the Research Excellence Framework (REF) for research impact evaluation of British Higher Education in both 2014 and 2021 and has contributed to numerous government research and education consultations through his active participation in the UK National Engineering Academy - the Royal Academy of Engineering (RAEng) since election to the fellowship in 2013, where he has also been an elected member of the trustee board since 2021. In 2014, he received the Royal Society Wolfson Fellowship for scientific contributions to energy-efficient and reliable computing systems, and in 2012, he received the Design and Test in European Conference Fellowship in recognition of contributions to electronic design and technical leadership. He was an elected fellow of the IEEE in 2009 for contributions to low-power integrated circuits and systems and was recently elected to the Fellowship of the Royal Society and the membership of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts in the same year, 2023. He has an undergraduate degree in electrical engineering and a PhD from University of York (1989).
Dr. Chih-Ming Kao, PhD, PE, BCEE, BC.WRE, F.IWA, F.WEF, F.AAAS, Dist.M.ASCE is a Distinguished Chair Professor in the Institute of Environmental Engineering at National Sun Yat-Sen University, Taiwan. Professor Kao is also the coordinator of Environmental Engineering Program at Ministry of Science and Technology, past president of The Chinese Institute of Environmental Engineering, and former president of The Taiwan Association of Soil and Groundwater Environmental Protection. Professor Kao received his MS and PhD degrees in civil and environmental engineering from North Carolina State University in 1989 and 1993, respectively. He is a fellow member of International Water Association (IWA), Distinguished Member of American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), a member of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts (EASA), a fellow member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), a fellow member of Environment and Water Resource Institute (EWRI), a registered professional engineer in the branch of civil engineering, a certified ground water professional, and a professional hydrologist in the United States. He is also a Diplomate of the American Academy of Environmental Engineers and Diplomate of American Academy of Water Resources Engineers. Professor Kao received the "Distinguished Researcher Award" from Taiwan Ministry of Science and Technology in 2011 and 2015. He is also the receiver of the "Distinguished Engineer Professor Award" from Chinese Institute of Engineers in 2012, and receiver of the "Distinguished Honor Award" from C.T. Ho Foundation in 2013. He also received several awards from ASCE including the State-of-the-Art of Civil Engineering Award in 2013, Hering Medal, Samuel Arnold Greeley Award in 2012, and distinguished theory-oriented paper award in 2008 and...
