
The Neuroscience of Sleep
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Content
- Intro
- Front Cover
- The Neuroscience of Sleep
- Copyright Page
- Table of Contents
- Contributors
- Preface
- INTRODUCTION
- History of Sleep Research
- Abnormal Behavior during Sleep
- NREM Sleep Parasomnia
- REM Behavior Disorder
- Conclusion
- Further Reading
- DEFINITIONS AND DESCRIPTIONS OF SLEEP
- Sleep Architecture
- Human Sleep
- Polysomnographic Recording of Sleep
- Sleep Architecture
- Autonomic and Peripheral Physiological Changes in Sleep
- Neurophysiological Basis of Sleep Stage Changes
- Homeostatic and Circadian Control of Sleep Onset
- Recent Discoveries Regarding the Brain in Sleep
- Summary
- Further Reading
- Behavior and Parasomnias (RSBD)
- Introduction
- Primary Sleep Parasomnias
- NREM Parasomnias
- Disorders of Arousal
- Confusional Arousals
- Sleepwalking
- Sleep Terrors
- REM Sleep Parasomnias
- REM Sleep Behavior Disorder
- Rhythmic Movement Disorder
- Secondary Sleep Parasomnias
- Nocturnal Seizures
- Sleep-Related Expiratory Groaning (Catathrenia)
- Conclusion
- Further Reading
- Sleep Oscillations and PGO Waves
- Behavioral and Electrographic Signs of Sleep Stages
- Sleep Onset
- Slow-Wave and Rapid Eye Movement Sleep
- Sleep Oscillations: Sites of Generation and Cellular Mechanisms
- Three Major Oscillations Define Slow-Wave Sleep
- Coalescence of low-frequency corticothalamic rhythms by the slow oscillation
- Why fast rhythms are also observed during slow-wave sleep
- Fast Oscillations during REM Sleep and Wakefulness
- Synaptic Plasticity Induced by Sleep Oscillations
- Ponto-Geniculo-Occipital Waves
- Further Reading
- PET Activation Patterns
- Introduction
- Sleep Stages and Sleep Oscillations
- Non-Rapid Eye Movement Sleep
- Rapid Eye Movement Sleep
- Neuroimaging and Dreams
- Sleep and Memory
- Conclusion and Perspectives
- Further Reading
- Hippocampal-Neocortical Dialog
- Introduction
- The Basics: A Two-Stage Model of Memory Trace Formation
- Hippocampal Replay of Waking Patterns during Sleep
- Novel Experience Alters Firing Patterns in Subsequent Sleep
- Interactions between Neocortex and Hippocampus during Sleep
- Conclusions
- Further Reading
- Network Reactivation
- Introduction
- Feedback and Rhythms
- Reactivation, Reverberation, and Replay
- A Link with Memory
- Network Reactivation Increases during Sleep
- Reactivation and Learning
- Characterization of Reactivation Properties
- Reactivation at the Molecular Level
- Dreams, Waking, and Sleep Mentation
- Concluding Remarks
- Further Reading
- Gene Expression
- The Molecular Correlates of Sleep May Offer Clues to Its Functions
- Hundreds of Genes in the Brain Change Their Expression between Sleep and Waking
- Some Genes Increase Their Expression during Sleep, Whereas Others Do So during Waking and Sleep Deprivation
- Sleep and Waking Genes Belong to Different Functional Categories
- Three Functional Categories of Waking Genes Are Conserved from Flies to Mammals
- The Noradrenergic System Plays a Role in the Induction of Some Waking Genes
- The Expression of Several Genes Changes after Chronic, but Not Acute, Sleep Loss
- Genes Upregulated during Sleep
- Conclusions
- Further Reading
- ONTOGENY AND PHYLOGENY OF SLEEP
- Phylogeny and Ontogeny of Sleep
- Introduction
- Behavioral Definition of Sleep
- Mammalian Sleep
- Monotremes
- Aquatic Mammals
- Early Ontogeny of Mammalian Sleep
- Avian Sleep
- Early Ontogeny of Avian Sleep
- Sleep in Reptiles
- Corticocortical Connectivity and SWS
- Comparative Perspectives on the Functions of Sleep
- Correlates of Avian SWS and REM Sleep
- Sleep in Invertebrates
- Conclusions
- Further Reading
- Sleep in Adolescents
- Adolescent Development and the Brain
- Adolescent Development and the Waking Electroencephalogram
- Adolescent Development and the Sleeping EEG
- Sleep Regulation and Adolescent Development
- Homeostatic Process (Process S)
- Circadian Timing (Process C)
- Interaction of Process S and Process C
- Sleep Habits and Adolescent Development
- Consequences of Chronic Insufficient and Ill-Timed Sleep in Adolescents
- Further Reading
- Sleep in Aging
- Background
- Changes in Sleep with Age
- Changes in Circadian Rhythm
- Treatment of Circadian Rhythm Disturbances
- Insomnia
- Consequences of Insomnia
- Medical and Psychiatric Illness and Insomnia
- Medication Use and Insomnia
- Treatment of Insomnia
- CBT
- Pharmacological therapy
- Specific Sleep Disorders
- Sleep-Disordered Breathing
- Treatment of SDB
- Significance of SDB in development
- Periodic Limb Movements and RLS
- Treatment of PLMS and RLS
- REM Behavior Disorder
- Treatment of RBD
- Conclusion
- Further Reading
- Relevant Websites
- CONTROL OF SLEEP AND SLEEP STATES
- Thalamic Regulation of Sleep
- Introduction
- Thalamic Pacemakers for Sleep Spindle Oscillations
- Dialog between the Thalamus and Cortex: Emergence of Large-Scale Synchrony
- Control of Sleep Oscillations by Neuromodulators
- Conclusion
- Further Reading
- Hypothalamic Regulation of Sleep
- Introduction
- Electrocortical and Behavioral Arousal: The Ascending Reticular Activating System
- New Perspective on the ARAS
- Sleep - Turning the Ascending Arousal System Off
- Flip-Flop Switch Stability and the Lateral Hypothalamic Area
- Homeostatic Regulation of Sleep
- Circadian Regulation of Sleep
- Hypothalamic Circadian Integrator for Sleep-Wake Regulation
- Corticolimbic Projections to the Hypothalamus - A New Frontier
- Summary
- Further Reading
- Histamine
- Overview
- Histamine Metabolism
- Morphology and Location of Histaminergic Neurons
- Physiology of Histaminergic Neurons
- Inputs to Histaminergic Neurons
- Amino Acids
- Amines
- Peptides
- Purines
- Histaminergic Pathways
- Histamine Receptors
- H1 Receptors
- H2 Receptors
- H3 Receptors
- Histamine and Synaptic Plasticity
- Histamine and Behavior
- Control of Waking and Arousal
- Learning and Memory
- Histamine Pathophysiology
- Conclusion
- Further Reading
- Cytokines and other Neuromodulators
- Introduction
- TNF-alpha in Sleep Regulation
- TNF Cell Biology
- Other NREMS Cytokine and Peptide Regulatory Substances
- Brain Organization of Sleep and TNF-alpha
- Regulation of REMS by Prolactin and Related Molecules
- A Proposed Mechanism for PRL-Enhanced REMS
- Conclusion
- Further Reading
- Locus Coeruleus and Raphe Nucleus
- Background
- Projections and Role of Noradrenergic Locus Coeruleus Neurons in Arousal
- Projections and Role of Serotonergic Raphe Neurons in Waking and Sleeping
- Further Reading
- Acetylcholine
- Background
- Cholinergic Systems in the Brain
- Cholinergic Systems and Cortical Activation of Waking
- Cholinergic Systems and REM Sleep
- Cholinergic Systems, Sleep, and Memory
- Further Reading
- Dopamine
- Introduction
- Sleep Regulation: Wake-Active Dopamine Neurons
- Dopaminergic Disorders and Sleep: PD
- Dopamine and Stimulant-Induced Arousal
- Summary
- Further Reading
- SLEEP AND AROUSAL STATES
- Reticular Activating System
- Introduction
- Wiring Diagram
- Intrinsic Properties
- Ascending Effects
- Waking and the 40 Hz Rhythm
- Slow-Wave Sleep
- Spindles
- Delta waves
- Slow waves
- REM Sleep
- Muscle Tone and Locomotion
- Neuropharmacology of Sleep and Arousal
- Alcohol
- Anesthetics and Sedatives
- Antihistamines
- Stimulants
- Development
- Arousal and Sleep Disorders
- Further Reading
- Nightmares
- Introduction
- Definition
- Prevalence
- Etiology
- Nightmares and Sleep Quality
- Nightmare Frequency versus Nightmare Distress
- Nightmares and Sleep Physiology
- Therapy of Nightmares
- Case Report - Adult
- Case Report - Child
- Conclusion and Future Directions
- Further Reading
- Coma
- Two Dimensions of Consciousness: Arousal and Awareness
- Nosology of Disorders of Consciousness
- Brain Death
- Coma
- VS
- MCS
- LIS
- Clinimetric Evaluation, Diagnosis, and Prognosis
- Consciousness Scales
- Brain Death
- Coma
- VS
- MCS
- LIS
- Residual Cerebral Function
- Brain Death
- Coma
- VS
- MCS
- LIS
- Conclusion
- Further Reading
- CIRCADIAN
- Circadian Regulation by the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus
- Functional Properties of the Mammalian Circadian Clock in the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus
- Hierarchy and Cell-Autonomous Nature of Circadian Clocks in Mammals
- Functional Differences between Circadian Clocks in the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus, Peripheral Tissues, and Fibroblasts
- The Search for Critical Output Signals of the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus
- Future Developments
- Further Reading
- Sleep: Development and Circadian Control
- Three Stages of Sleep Development
- BAS and BQS May Not Be Homologous with REM and NREM Sleep
- Sleep Regulation
- Development of the Circadian System
- Sleep and Circadian Development Continues throughout Life
- Further Reading
- Sleep and Waking in Drosophila
- The Molecular Correlates of Sleep May Offer Clues to Its Functions
- Hundreds of Genes in the Brain Change Their Expression between Sleep and Waking
- Some Genes Increase Their Expression during Sleep, Others during Waking and Sleep Deprivation
- Sleep and Waking Genes Belong to Different Functional Categories
- Three Functional Categories of Waking Genes Are Conserved from Flies to Mammals
- The Noradrenergic System Plays a Role in the Induction of Some Waking Genes
- The Expression of Several Genes Changes after Chronic, but Not Acute Sleep Loss
- Genes Upregulated during Sleep
- Conclusions
- Further Reading
- Genetics of Circadian Disorders in Humans
- Circadian Rhythms in Mammals
- Circadian Rhythm Sleep Disorders
- Diagnosis
- Prevalence
- Pathophysiology
- Genetic Basis of Human Circadian Rhythm Sleep Disorders
- Summary
- Further Reading
- Circadian Rhythms in Sleepiness, Alertness, and Performance
- Introduction
- Identifying the Circadian Rhythm in Sleep and Wakefulness
- Subjective Measures of Fatigue and Alertness
- Cognitive Performance
- Electroencephalographic and Ocular Measures
- Midafternoon Dip
- Problems in Detecting Circadian Rhythmicity in Performance
- Practice Effects and Other Artifacts
- Interindividual and Intraindividual Variability
- Circadian Rhythmicity and Sleep-Wake Cycles
- Sleep Deprivation
- Sleep-Wake Regulation
- Forced Desynchrony
- Ultraradian Days
- Circadian Disorders
- Accident Risk
- Conclusion
- Further Reading
- PHARMACOLOGY OF SLEEP
- Modafini, Amphetamines, and Caffeine
- Modafinil
- Modafinil Metabolism and Elimination
- Modafinil Pharmacology
- Modafinil Adverse Reactions and Safety
- Amphetamines
- Amphetamine Structure-Activity Relationships
- Amphetamine Metabolism and Elimination
- Amphetamine Pharmacology
- Amphetamine Adverse Reactions and Safety
- Caffeine
- Caffeine Metabolism and Elimination
- Caffeine Pharmacology
- Caffeine Adverse Reactions and Safety
- Further Reading
- Adenosine
- General Pharmacology of Sleep
- Adenosine as a Potential Target of Hypnotics
- Adenosine Receptors as Therapeutic Targets
- Nucleoside Transporters as Therapeutic Targets
- Allosteric Modulators as Therapeutic Agents
- Allosteric Modulators of the A1 Adenosine Receptor Subtype
- Allosteric Modulators of the A2a and A2b Adenosine Receptor Subtypes
- Allosteric Modulators of the A3 Adenosine Receptor Subtype
- Adenosine as a Therapeutic Agent for Other Diseases
- Conclusion
- Further Reading
- SLEEP FUNCTION
- Endocrine Function During Sleep and Sleep Deprivation
- Overview
- Melatonin: The Chronobiological Pineal Hormone
- Key Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
- Cortisol
- Growth Hormone
- Prolactin
- Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone
- Energy Metabolism and Adipose Tissue Hormones
- Leptin
- Ghrelin
- Conclusion
- Further Reading
- Immune Function During Sleep and Sleep Deprivation
- Context and Questions
- Sleep Responds to Experimental Immune Challenge
- Animal Models
- Human Models
- Effects of Sleep Deprivation on Host Defense
- Animal Models
- Normal Rhythms of Immune-Active Cells and Modulating Hormones in Humans
- Sleep Deprivation in Humans
- Further Reading
- Thermoregulation during Sleep and Sleep Deprivation
- Introduction
- Thermoregulation during Sleep
- Changes in Body Temperature and Metabolism during Sleep
- Thermoregulatory Responses to Thermal Challenge Are Influenced by Sleep
- Effects of Environmental and Body Temperature on Sleep
- Brain Circuits That Regulate Sleep and Body Temperature Are Functionally Interrelated
- Temperature-Sensing Neurons in the Hypothalamus Control Body Temperature
- Hypothalamic Temperature-Sensing Neurons Are Involved in Sleep Regulation
- Control of Body Temperature during Sleep Deprivation
- Acute Sleep Deprivation: Interactions with Circadian Control of Body Temperature
- Chronic Sleep Deprivation Causes Dysregulation of Body Temperature in Rats
- Thermoregulatory Control of Human Sleep
- Thermoregulatory Changes Influence Sleep Onset and Sleep Maintenance
- Thermoregulation and Disordered Human Sleep
- Further Reading
- Autonomic Dysregulation During REM Sleep
- Sleep Stage Transitions and the Autonomic Nervous System in Normal Individuals
- Dreaming
- Other Physiologic Responses to REM Sleep
- Cardiovascular Reflexes Mediating Autonomic Activity
- The Chemoreflexes
- The Arterial Baroreflex
- Measures of Autonomic Cardiovascular Regulation
- REM Sleep and Heart Rate/Rhythm
- Arousals/Morning Awakening
- Obstructive Sleep Apnea
- Sleep Deprivation/Short Sleep Duration
- REM Sleep and Autonomics in the Setting of Cardiovascular Disease
- Conclusion
- Further Reading
- Sleep-Dependent Memory Processing
- Introduction
- Delineations and Definitions
- Sleep States
- Memory Categories
- Memory Stages
- Sleep and Memory Encoding
- Sleep and Memory Consolidation
- Declarative Memory
- Nondeclarative Procedural Memory
- Motor learning
- Visual perceptual learning
- Procedural memory and daytime naps
- Sleep and Brain Plasticity
- Modification of Posttraining Sleep and Brain Activation
- Overnight Reorganization of Memory Representations
- Summary
- Further Reading
- Behavioral Change with Sleep Deprivation
- Introduction
- History of Sleep Research
- Functional Consequences of Sleep Deprivation
- Sleep Deprivation and Accident Risk
- Sleep Deprivation and the Propensity to Fall Asleep
- Microsleeps, Lapses, and Errors
- Wake State Instability
- Sleep Deprivation and Basic Cognitive and Psychomotor Performance
- Sleep Deprivation and Higher Cognitive Functions
- Sleep Deprivation and Working Memory
- Sleep Deprivation, Mood, and Emotion
- Effects of Chronic Partial Sleep Deprivation
- Daytime Sleep Propensity during Chronic Sleep Restriction
- Attenuated Subjective Effects of Chronic Sleep Restriction
- Polysomnography and Waking EEG and Electrooculography Effects of Chronic Sleep Restriction
- Sleep Debt Hypothesis versus Wake Extension Hypothesis
- Physiological Effects of Sleep Deprivation
- Endocrine and Metabolic Effects of Chronic Sleep Restriction
- Cardiovascular Effects of Chronic Sleep Restriction
- Immune and Inflammatory Effects of Chronic SleepRestriction
- Differential Neurobehavioral Vulnerability to Sleep Loss
- Summary
- Further Reading
- Sleep Deprivation and Brain Function
- Introduction
- Definitions
- Functional Neuroimaging Studies of Sleep Deprivation
- Attention Tasks
- Learning Tasks
- Working Memory
- Visuospatial Functioning
- Summary and Conclusion
- Compensatory Recruitment Hypothesis
- Future Directions
- Further Reading
- Napping
- Introduction
- Definitions and Demographics of Napping
- What Is a Nap?
- Changes in Napping Behaviors across the Life Span
- Is Napping a Natural Part of Our Circadian Rhythm?
- Timing of Naps
- Physiological Evidence for 'Nap Zone'
- Behavioral Markers for the 'Nap' Zone
- What Is the Function of Naps?
- Sleepiness versus Fatigue Countermeasures
- Napping in Sleep-Deprived Conditions
- Cognitive Benefits of Napping Linked to Specific Stages of Sleep
- Summary
- Further Reading
- Relevant Website
- SLEEP DISORDERS
- Sleep Apnea
- Sleep Apneas Are Neurally Mediated
- Epidemiology and Genetics of Sleep Apnea
- Obstructive Sleep Apnea
- Central Sleep Apnea
- Pathophysiology
- Obstructive Sleep Apnea
- Central Sleep Apnea
- Clinical Features of Sleep Apnea
- Obstructive Sleep Apnea
- Central Sleep Apnea
- Diagnosis
- Therapies
- Obstructive Sleep Apnea
- Central Sleep Apnea
- Morbidities and Disease Interactions
- Future Directions
- Further Reading
- Narcolepsy
- What Is Narcolepsy?
- Narcolepsy Symptoms
- Dissociated REM Sleep in Narcolepsy
- Genetic Predisposition to Narcolepsy-Cataplexy
- Narcolepsy-Cataplexy Is Tightly Associated with Hypocretin Deficiency
- Neurobiology of the Hypocretin Systems and Relevance to Narcolepsy
- Is Narcolepsy an Autoimmune Disorder?
- Narcolepsy without Cataplexy
- Therapies for Narcolepsy
- Perspectives for New Treatments
- Further Reading
- Cataplexy
- Clinical Features of Cataplexy
- Physiological and Pathophysiological Aspects of Cataplexy
- Cataplexy and Hypocretin/Orexin Deficiency
- Further Reading
- Relevant Website
- Sleeping Sickness
- Introduction
- Historical Notes and Current Prevalence
- The Parasite and Human Infections
- The Parasite
- Stages of Sleeping Sickness, Treatment, and Neurological Signs
- Sleep and Circadian Rhythmicity Disturbances
- Neuropathological Findings
- Experimental Studies and Hypotheses on Pathogenesis of Sleep Disruption during the Disease
- Neuroinflammation in Trypanosoma brucei-Infected Rodents
- Alterations of Sleep and Endogenous Rhythms in Rodent Models
- Involvement of Neural Centers That Regulate Circadian Rhythms and Sleep
- The Blood-Brain Barrier and Implications for Treatment
- Further Reading
- DREAMING
- Theories of Dream Function
- Introduction
- Contrasting Conceptions of 'Function'
- Dream Carryover Effects
- Carryover Effects of REM Dreaming
- Fluidity of thought
- Felt presence
- Felt position
- Emotional feeling
- Auxiliary effects
- Carryover Effects of Intensified Dreaming
- Sleep paralysis episodes
- Impactful dreams
- Memory Consolidation
- Memory Consolidation and REM Sleep
- Effects of learning on REM sleep
- Effects of REM deprivation on consolidation
- Convergent findings from other paradigms
- Memory Consolidation and NREM Sleep
- Dream Content and Memory Consolidation
- Emotional Adaptation
- Mood Regulation
- REM sleep and mood regulation during depression
- REM deprivation and depression
- Conflict Resolution
- Vestigial Defense
- Conclusion
- Further Reading
- Sleep and Consciousnesss
- Introduction
- Definition of Consciousness
- Characteristics of Consciousness
- Changes in the Brain and in the Body during Sleep
- Changes in Consciousness
- Formal Analysis of Dream Content
- Cellular and Molecule Mechanisms of Mammalian Sleep
- Input-Output Gating
- Efferent Copy Generation
- Differences in Regional Brain Activation
- Field Studies of Waking, Sleeping, and Dreaming Consciousness
- Convergence of Physiology, Psychology, and Philosophy
- AIM: An Integrated Model of the Human Brain Mind
- Further Reading
- REM/NREM Differences in Dream Content
- Dreaming in Rapid Eye Movement Sleep
- The Activation-Synthesis Model
- Synthesis and Dream 'Incorporation'
- Activated Cortex as an Attractor Landscape
- Characteristics of Sleep Mentation
- Hallucinatory Quality
- Lucid Dreaming
- Personal Motives, Values, and Emotions
- Bizarreness
- Visual and Auditory Imagery
- Total Reported Information
- Circadian Influences on Sleep Mentation
- Joint and Unique Patterns of REM and Circadian-Based Mentation
- Bizarreness Revisited
- Homeostatic-Driven Processes, Naps, and Dreaming
- Sleep State Ambiguity and Mentation Features
- Further Reading
- Dreams and Nightmares in PTSD
- Clinical Significance of Nightmares in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
- Nightmares and Sleep following Trauma Exposure and in Chronic PTSD
- Dream Recall and Nightmare-Related PTSD
- Repetition of Trauma in Dreams
- Trauma and Dream Content
- Victims of Physical and Sexual Abuse
- Victims of War and Violence
- Frequency of Dream-Related Disorders
- Functional Hypotheses of PTSD-Related Nightmares
- Nightmares and Emotional Adaptation to Trauma
- Sensitization Hypothesis of PTSD Nightmares
- Potential Psychophysiological and Neurobiological Underpinnings of PTSD-Related Nightmares
- Treatments of PTSD-Related Nightmares
- Imagery Rescripting and Rehearsal
- Prazosin
- Serotonin-Potentiating Drugs
- Other Pharmacological Agents
- Further Reading
- Relevant Websites
- Theories and Correlates of Nightmares
- Nightmares Defined
- Nightmare Prevalence and Correlates
- Models of Nightmare Production
- Psychoanalytic and Neopsychoanalytic Models
- Personality and Evolutionary Models
- Boundary permeability
- Image contextualization
- Threat simulation
- Neurobiological Models
- Neurotransmitter imbalance
- REM sleep desomatization
- Mood regulation
- Affective network dysfunction
- Further Reading
- Incorporation of Waking Events into Dreams
- Overview
- Effects of Presleep Experience on Dream Content
- Manipulation of Presleep Experience in the Sleep Laboratory
- Correspondence between Presleep Experience and Dreaming in the Home
- Incorporation of Presleep Experience into Sleep Onset Dreaming
- Form of Waking Experience Incorporations
- Sleep Stages, Waking Memory Sources, and Memory Systems
- Emotional Value and Waking Experience Incorporation
- Time Course of Incorporations
- Recent Memories, Dreaming, and Memory Consolidation
- Neural Basis for Dream Incorporation of Recent Events: Connection to Declarative Memory Consolidation?
- A Function for Dreaming?
- Further Reading
- Subject Index
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