Chapter 1
The History of Buildings

The development of building knowledge

In order to understand the construction of buildings it is necessary to determine the age of the building and the technologies likely to be included in the construction and design of that period. For this reason, this first chapter briefly explains the construction and features of buildings over the years and this is further developed in chapter three where the construction is discussed in more detail.

Since the beginning of time man has been engaged in building structures and it is remarkable that many of the early structures still exist. The Neolithic period as early as 6500-10 200 BC saw the first structures being made which may have been simple huts and bridges but nevertheless commenced mankind's quest to construct buildings. Buildings continued to develop through the Mesopotamian, Ancient Greek and Ancient Egyptian periods, which ranged from 6000 BC until 146 BC, and some of these structures - such as the pyramids - are a lasting legacy to the ingenuity and understanding of building construction principles. Following this, the period of the Ancient Romans from around 753 BC until 476 AD saw large-scale buildings become more commonplace. As techniques and materials became better understood, more adventurous structures were constructed.

The Medieval period of the 12th century until the 18th century saw timber frame houses being constructed and some of the early timber frame houses of this era still exist, such as the Medieval Merchants House in Southampton, Hampshire. The development of these structures is intrinsically linked to the understanding of materials and the behaviour of structures which carpenters gained over these centuries.

Masons involved in the construction of churches would travel across the east and west, refining techniques and applying them to new and larger structures. One such example is the development of the arch from a circular arch to a gothic pointed arch, which improved its ability to carry loads, thus resulting in larger-scale and more impressive structures. This is evident in the late 16th century when large glass windows became fashionable in churches to provide light, which also had a significant theological meaning.

The understanding of flying buttresses to resist large lateral and horizontal loads meant that vaulted ceilings could be constructed which accommodated large spans. The first example in England was in Durham Cathedral, which was commenced in 1093. Other early examples include the apse of the Basilica of Saint-Remi in Reims dating from 1170.

Although some of the structural principals were understood, many were based on trial and error and then carried through as tried and tested means of developing structures.

Such scholars as Marcus Vitruvius Pollio wrote some of the earliest books on architecture, and his work De architectura (known as Ten Books of Architecture) is the only surviving book from the classical period. This provided dimensions for columns based on the number and type of column used and the style of temple required. The height of the column was expressed as a multiple of the diameter. This work was not discovered until 1414 in a library in Switzerland, and interestingly there had been no other printed works prior to this time.

During the Renaissance period, in 1450, Leon Battista Alberti published De re aedificatoria, which translates as The Art of Building. This was one of the first printed books on architecture. Later, Sebastiano Serlio (1475-1554) published Regole generali d'architettura, which translates as General Rules of Architecture. Then, in 1570, Adrea Palladio published I quattro libra dell'architettura, which translates as Four Books of Architecture. This final publication carried many of the Renaissance ideas into Europe.

Prior to these publications there were very few books for architects and masons to reference how structures were constructed. Following the Renaissance period (15th-17th centuries), more information became available.

During the years 1100-1200, fire was the major concern and a hazard in built-up cities. The construction of houses during this time was predominantly in timber, and densely populated areas resulted in accommodation being provided by extending existing properties and adding additional storeys.

In 1666 the Great Fire of London transformed building control and regulation in the UK. The following year the London Building Act banned the use of timber and insisted on the use of brick and stone in the construction of houses. In 1694, following another major fire in Warwick, more major cities were prompted to introduce Building Acts based upon that introduced in London. By the 18th century, most cities had a Building Control Authority and had adopted a Building Act.

The Building Act of 1858 meant that plans had to be deposited with the authorities for new buildings and alterations. This makes it easier - after this period - to ascertain the history and construction of properties throughout the UK.

Styles of architecture and building construction

It is remarkable that today we still dwell in houses constructed as far back as Medieval times, and it is at this point that we begin our analysis of the structures of buildings based on the techniques used in the past.

Medieval

The majority of the remaining residential dwellings of this period are of timber frame. Predominantly these were of cruck construction or box frame, where the roof is a separate structure to the walls. Medieval buildings tended to have thick timber members which were irregular in shape, and the timber posts were placed directly onto or inserted into the ground. The floor joists were generally large and laid flat rather than upright, typically these would be 200 mm × 150 mm timbers. Figure 1.1 shows a photograph of a typical cruck frame construction used in a house in Herefordshire.

Figure 1.1: Photograph of typical cruck construction in Herefordshire.

In their simplest form, Medieval buildings were four-bay cruck frame structures with a large hall occupying at least two of the bays. The open-plan design centred around a large fire, which was the only means of heating. Access was gained through two large doors normally located on opposite sides, which formed cross passages. Of the remaining bays, one would form a parlour which would create some privacy for its occupants and the other would be split as a pantry and buttery for storing food and drink. Over 4000 cruck frame buildings remain in the UK today.

Other forms of construction existed at this time, and stone cottages have been constructed from materials close to hand from a very early period in history. Cob construction is another form of construction with the main component being mud, earth or clay. This form of construction can be traced back to the 14th century and was particularly evident in the south-west and central-southern England.

Tudor (1485-1560)

With the exception of churches, most buildings in the Tudor period were also of timber frame construction with box frame construction being dominant. Houses tended to be one-room deep with a limited span, as the walls did not have sufficient load-bearing capacity to support the heavy roof structure. Some masonry brick construction was used to fill the timber panels and some stone construction for windows and quoins.

Bricks were a luxury product and found only in the homes of the wealthy, and generally in the east and south parts of the country. This was predominantly because the people who knew how to make and use bricks were Flemish immigrants who settled on the east coast.

Most large houses were constructed around a central hall, with wings containing private chambers at one end and kitchens and service rooms at the other. As today, space within the towns and cities was valuable and the timber frame houses were generally owned by rich merchants. Plots in the cities tended to be long and narrow, and houses often had a rectangular form with the gable end facing onto the street. The ground floor was used for commercial enterprise, with the living accommodation being above. To gain additional space, jetties were introduced to extend over ground floors and create additional storeys.

The jetties extended the higher storeys forward of the building line into the street, reducing the distance between the facing properties. Consequently, this resulted in an increased fire risk, as fire could travel easily from one building to another. Figure 1.2 is a photograph showing the close proximity of timber frame properties in Leominster, increasing the risk of fire. This was a prominent reason for the spread of the Great Fire of London in 1666.

Figure 1.2: Photograph showing the close proximity of timber frame housing in Leominster, increasing the risk of fire.

Initially little consideration was given to external appearance, but towards the end of the Tudor period the finest timber frame houses featured close timber studding, decorative panels and brick panels with diagonal patterns.

Glazing was not generally used in properties at this time, and only the finest properties enjoyed this privilege. Timber frame houses at this time had shutters and mullions rather than glass.

Floorboards above the floor...