Functional Food Product Development
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"It will also be of interest to researchers and foodscience students." (South African Food Science AndTechnology, 1 May 2012)More details
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Contributors.
PART I NEW TECHNOLOGIES FOR FUNCTIONAL FOOD MANUFACTURE.
1 Microencapsulation in functional food product development (Luz Sanguansri and Mary Ann Augustin).
1.1 Introduction.
1.2 Microencapsulation.
1.3 Microencapsulated food ingredients.
1.4 Development of microencapsulated ingredients.
1.5 Delivery of microencapsulated ingredient into functional foods.
1.6 Conclusion.
Acknowledgements.
References.
2 Nanoencapsulation of food ingredients in cyclodextrins: Effect of water interactions and ligand structure (M.F. Mazzobre, B.E. Elizalde, C. dos Santos, P.A. Ponce Cevallos and M.P. Buera).
2.1 Introduction.
2.2 Brief history.
2.3 Structure and properties of cyclodextrins.
2.4 Formation and characterisation of the inclusion complexes.
2.5 Water adsorption isotherms.
2.6 Water and the stability and release of encapsulated nutraceuticals.
2.7 Applications and future prospects.
Acknowledgements.
References.
3 Supercritical carbon dioxide and subcritical water: Complementary agents in the processing of functional foods (Keerthi Srinivas and Jerry W. King).
3.1 Introduction.
3.2 Sub- and supercritical fluid solvents.
3.3 Sub- and supercritical fluid extraction.
3.4 Tandem processing using sub- and supercritical fluids.
3.5 Integrated critical fluid processing technology.
3.6 Production-scale critical fluid-based nutraceutical plants and commercial products.
References.
4 Emulsion delivery systems for functional foods (P. Fustier, A.R. Taherian and H.S. Ramaswamy).
4.1 Introduction.
4.2 Food emulsions.
4.3 Delivery systems for bioactive materials.
4.4 Encapsulation of polyunsaturated fatty acids - an example application.
4.5 Conclusions.
References.
PART II FUNCTIONAL INGREDIENTS.
5 Functional and nutraceutical lipids (Fereidoon Shahidi).
5.1 Omega-3 fatty acids and products.
5.2 Monounsaturated fatty acids.
5.3 Medium-chain fatty acids and medium-chain triacylglycerols.
5.4 Conjugated linoleic acids and &#gamma;-linolenic acid.
5.5 Diacylglycerol oils.
5.6 Structured lipids.
5.7 Conclusions.
References.
6 The use of functional plant ingredients for the development of efficacious functional foods (Christopher P.F. Marinangeli and Peter J.H. Jones).
6.1 Introduction.
6.2 Soy extracts.
6.3 Plant sterols and stanols.
6.4 Fiber and its various components: &#beta;-Glucan and inulin.
6.5 Conclusions.
References.
7 Dairy ingredients in new functional food product development (S.L. Amaya-Llano and Lech Ozimek).
7.1 Historical aspects.
7.2 Functional dairy product development.
7.3 Health and dairy functional ingredients.
7.4 Galacto-oligosaccharides, lactulose, lactitol and lactosucrose.
7.5 Growth factors.
7.6 Specific lipids.
7.7 The n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids.
7.8 Uses in food systems.
7.9 Regulations.
7.10 Future considerations.
References.
8 Probiotics and prebiotics (Anna Sip and Wlodzimierz Grajek).
8.1 Introduction.
8.2 Probiotic strains.
8.3 Functional properties of probiotics.
8.4 Medical applications.
8.5 Gastrointestinal infections of different etiology.
8.6 Colitis.
8.7 Functional bowel disorders.
8.8 Disorders in lipid metabolism.
8.9 Disorders of calcium and phosphate metabolism.
8.10 Food allergy.
8.11 Metabolic disorders.
8.12 Cancer.
8.13 Other disease entities.
8.14 Selection of probiotic strains.
8.15 Technological aspects and production of probiotic foods.
8.16 Probiotic products.
8.17 Prebiotics.
8.18 The application of prebiotics.
8.19 Synbiotics.
8.20 Conclusions.
References.
9 The influence of food processing and home cooking on the antioxidant stability in foods (Wlodzimierz Grajek and Anna Olejnik).
9.1 Introduction.
9.2 Mechanical processing.
9.3 Drying.
9.4 Conclusions.
References.
10 Development and commercialization of microalgae-based functional lipids (Jaouad Fichtali and S.P.J. Namal Senanayake).
10.1 Introduction.
10.2 Industrial production of microalgal lipids.
10.3 Composition of algal biomass.
10.4 Characteristics of algal lipids.
10.5 Safety studies of algal lipids.
10.6 Applications.
References.
PART III PRODUCT DESIGN AND REGULATION.
11 New trends for food product design (Juan-Carlos Arboleya, Daniel Lasa, Idoia Olabarrieta and Iñigo Martínez de Marañón).
11.1 Introduction.
11.2 Functional food product design: Case studies.
11.3 Conclusions.
References.
12 Reverse pharmacology for developing functional foods/herbal supplements: Approaches, framework and case studies (Anantha Narayana D.B.).
12.1 What is reverse pharmacology?
12.2 Ayurveda's strength for functional foods.
12.3 Framework for functional food development.
12.4 Case studies.
12.5 Factors to make reverse pharmacology work.
Acknowledgments.
References.
13 An overview of functional food regulation in North America, European Union, Japan and Australia (Paula N. Brown and Michael Chan).
13.1 Introduction.
13.2 The Canadian regulatory framework.
13.3 The United States regulatory framework.
13.4 The European Union's regulatory framework.
13.5 The Japanese regulatory framework.
13.6 The Australian regulatory framework.
13.7 Conclusions on food regulation.
References.
PART IV FUNCTIONAL FOODS AND HEALTH.
14 Functional foods that boost the immune system (Calvin London).
14.1 The rise of immune-boosting functional foods.
14.2 Review of the immune system.
14.3 Immune-enhancing nutrients.
14.4 Inherent functional foods.
14.5 Fortified and modified food components.
14.6 Ancillary functional food components.
14.7 Functional immune-boosting animal feeds.
14.8 The future of immune-boosting functional foods.
References.
15 The Mediterranean diets: Nutrition and gastronomy (Federico Leighton Puga and Inés Urquiaga).
15.1 Mediterranean diet definition.
15.2 Food components in the Mediterranean diet.
15.3 Some health mechanisms of the Mediterranean diet.
15.4 Mediterranean diet and gastronomy.
15.5 Mediterranean diet 'food at work' intervention.
References.
16 Functional foods for the brain (Ans Eilander, Saskia Osendarp and Jyoti Kumar Tiwari).
16.1 Introduction.
16.2 Evidence from intervention trials.
16.3 Challenges in fortification of foods for children.
16.4 Conclusions.
References.
17 Tangible health benefits of phytosterol functional foods (Jerzy Zawistowski).
17.1 Introduction.
17.2 Phytosterol properties.
17.3 Efficacy of phytosterols.
17.4 Mechanism of action of phytosterols.
17.5 Safety of phytosterols.
17.6 Manufacturing of phytosterols.
17.7 Challenges in formulation, regulatory approval and commercialisation of phytosterol-containing foods.
17.8 Conclusion.
Acknowledgement.
References.
18 Obesity and related disorders (Yanwen Wang).
18.1 Definition of obesity and commonly used measures.
18.2 Prevalence of overweight and obesity.
18.3 Health costs related to obesity.
18.4 Etiology of obesity.
18.5 Obesity and cardiovascular disease.
18.6 Obesity and type 2 diabetes.
18.7 Prevention of obesity.
18.8 Treatment of obesity.
18.9 Natural products for obesity prevention and intervention.
18.10 Conclusion.
References.
19 Omega-3, 6 and 9 fatty acids, inflammation and neurodegenerative diseases (Cai Song).
19.1 Introduction.
19.2 The functions of omega-3, 6, 9 fatty acids in the brain and in the immune system.
19.3 Changes in concentrations and ratios of these fatty acids in neurodegenerative diseases.
19.4 The therapeutic effects in clinical investigations.
19.5 Mechanism by which EFAs treat different diseases.
19.6 Weakness of current treatments and researches, and the future research direction.
References.
20 Functional food in child nutrition (Martin Gotteland, Sylvia Cruchet and Oscar Brunser).
20.1 Maternal milk: The gold standard of functional food for infants.
20.2 Infant formulas.
20.3 Main bioactive compounds in breast milk and their use in infant formulas.
20.4 Conclusions.
References.
21 Functional foods and bone health: Where are we at? (Wendy E. Ward, Beatrice Lau, Jovana Kaludjerovic and Sandra M. Sacco).
21.1 Osteoporosis is a significant public health issue.
21.2 Bone is a dynamic tissue throughout the life cycle.
21.3 Assessment of bone health.
21.4 Foods and dietary components that may modulate bone metabolism throughout the life cycle.
21.5 Soy and its isoflavones.
21.6 Fish oil and n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids.
21.7 Flaxseed and its components, secoisolariciresinol diglycoside and &#alpha;-linolenic acid.
21.8 Summary - Where are we at?
21.9 Where do we go from here?
References.
Index.
The colour plate section.
1: Microencapsulation in functional food product development
Luz Sanguansri and Mary Ann Augustin
1.1 Introduction
Functional foods provide health benefits over and above normal nutrition. Functional foods are different from medical foods and dietary supplements, but they may overlap with those foods developed for special dietary uses and fortified foods. They are one of the fastest growing sectors of the food industry due to increasing demand from consumers for foods that promote health and well-being (Mollet & Lacroix 2007). The global functional food market, which has the potential to mitigate disease, promote health and reduce health care costs, is expected to rise to a value of US$167 billion by 2010, equating to a 5% share of total food expenditure in the developed world (Draguhn 2007).
Functional foods must generally be made available to consumers in forms that are consumed within the usual daily dietary pattern of the target population group. Consumers expect functional foods to have good organoleptic qualities (e.g. good aroma, taste, texture and visual aspects) and to be of similar qualities to the traditional foods in the market (Klont 1999; Augustin 2001; Kwak & Jukes 2001; Klahorst 2006). The demand for bioactive ingredients will continue to grow as the global market for functional foods and preventative or protective foods with associated health claims continues to rise. Over the last decade, there has been significant research and development in the areas of bioactive discovery and development of new materials, processes, ingredients and products that can contribute to the development of functional foods for improving the health of the general population.
New functional food products launched in the global food and drinks market have followed the route of fortification or addition of desirable nutrients and bioactives including vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, omega-3 fatty acids, plant extracts, prebiotics and probiotics, and fibre enrichments. Many of these ingredients are prone to degradation and/or can interact with other components in the food matrix, leading to loss in quality of the functional food products. To overcome problems associated with fortification, the added bioactive ingredient should be isolated from environments that promote degradation or undesirable interactions. This may be accomplished by the use of microencapsulation where the sensitive bioactive is packaged within a secondary material for delivery into food products. This chapter covers the microencapsulation of food components for use in functional food product formulations and how these components can be utilised to develop commercially successful functional foods.
1.2 Microencapsulation
Microencapsulation is a process by which a core, i.e. bioactive or functional ingredient, is packaged within a secondary material to form a microcapsule. The secondary material, known as the encapsulant, matrix or shell, forms a protective coating or matrix around the core, isolating it from its surrounding environment until its release is triggered by changes in its environment. This avoids undesirable interactions of the bioactive with other food components or chemical reactions that can lead to degradation of the bioactive, with the possible undesirable consequences on taste and odour as well as negative health effects.
It is essential to design a microencapsulated ingredient with its end use in mind. This requires knowledge of (1) the core, (2) the encapsulant materials, (3) interactions between the core, matrix and the environment, (4) the stability of the microencapsulated ingredient in storage and when incorporated into the food matrix and (5) the mechanisms that control the release of the core. Table 1.1 gives examples of cores that have been microencapsulated for use in functional food applications. The molecular structure of the core is usually known. However, information is sometimes lacking on how the core interacts with other food components, its fate upon consumption, its target site for action and in the case of a bioactive core, sometimes its function in the body after ingestion may also be unclear (de Vos et al. 2006).
Table 1.1 Food ingredients that have been microencapsulated
Types of ingredients Flavouring agents (including sweeteners, seasonings and spices) Acids, bases and buffers (e.g. citric acid, lactic acid and sodium bicarbonate) Lipids (e.g. fish oils, milk fat and vegetable oils) Enzymes (e.g. proteases) and microorganisms (e.g. probiotic bacteria) Amino acids and peptides Vitamins and minerals Antioxidants Polyphenols Phytonutrients Soluble fibres1.2.1 Encapsulant materials
Depending on the properties of the core to be encapsulated and the purpose of microencapsulation, encapsulant materials are generally selected from a range of proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and waxes (Table 1.2), which may be used alone or in combination. The materials chosen as encapsulants are typically film forming, pliable, odourless, tasteless and non-hygroscopic. Solubility in aqueous media or solvent and/or ability to exhibit a phase transition, such as melting or gelling, are sometimes desirable, depending on the processing requirements for production of the microencapsulated ingredient and for when it is incorporated into the food product. Other additives, such as emulsifiers, plasticisers or defoaming agents, are sometimes included in the formulation to tune the final product's characteristics. The encapsulant material may also be modified by physical or chemical means in order to achieve the desired functionality of the microencapsulation matrix. The choice of encapsulant material is therefore dependent on a number of factors, including its physical and chemical properties, its compatibility with the target food application and its influence on the sensory and aesthetic properties of the final food product (Brazel 1999; Gibbs et al. 1999).
Table 1.2 Materials that have been used as encapsulants for food application
Encapsulant materials Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids and waxes Native starchesModified starches
Resistant starches
Maltodextrins
Dried glucose syrups
Gum acacia
Alginates
Pectins
Carrageenan
Chitosan
Cellulosic materials
Sugars and derivatives Sodium caseinate
Whey proteins
Isolated wheat proteins
Soy proteins
Gelatins
Zein
Albumin Vegetable fats and oils
Hydrogenated fats
Palm stearin
Carnauba wax
Bees wax
Shellac
Polyethylene glycol
The ability of carbohydrates to form gels and glassy matrices has been exploited for microencapsulation of bioactives (Reineccius 1991; Kebyon 1995). Starch and starch derivates have been extensively used for the delivery of sensitive ingredients through food (Shimoni 2008). Chemical modification has made a number of starches more suitable as encapsulants for oils by increasing their lipophilicity and improving their emulsifying properties. Starch that was hydrophobically modified by octenyl succinate anhydride had improved emulsification properties compared to the native starch (Bhosale & Singhal 2006; Nilsson & Bergenståhl 2007). Acid modification of tapioca starch has been shown to improve its encapsulation properties for ß-carotene, compared to native starch or maltodextrin (Loksuwan 2007). Physical modification of starches by heat, shear and pressure has also been explored to alter its properties (Augustin et al. 2008), and the modified starch has been used in combination with proteins for microencapsulation of oils (Chung et al. 2008).
Carbohydrates used for microencapsulation of ß-carotene, from sea buckthorn juice, by ionotropic gelation using furcellaran beads, achieved encapsulation efficiency of 97% (Laos et al. 2007). Interest in using cyclodextrins and cyclodextrin complexes for molecular encapsulation of lipophilic bioactive cores is ongoing, especially in applications where other traditional materials do not perform well, or where the final application can bear the cost of this expensive material. The majority of commercial applications for cyclodextrins have been for flavour encapsulation and packaging films (Szente & Szejtli 2004).
Proteins are used as encapsulants because of their excellent solubility in water, good gel-forming, film-forming and emulsifying properties (Kim & Moore 1995; Hogan et al. 2001). Protein-based microcapsules can be easily rehydrated or solubilised in water, which often results in immediate release of the core. Proteins are often combined with carbohydrates for microencapsulation of oils and oil-soluble components. In the manufacture of encapsulated oil powders, encapsulation efficiency was higher when the encapsulation matrix was a mixture of milk proteins and carbohydrates, compared to when protein was used alone (Young et al. 1993). Soy protein-based microcapsules of fish oil have been cross-linked using transglutaminase to improve the stability of...
