Chapter 1
The Social Change Model of Leadership Development for Leadership Educators

Kristan Cilente Skendall & Daniel T. Ostick

"Leadership is the way we invade our future."

Susan Komives

Leadership educators shape the future through their work. The Social Change Model (SCM) of Leadership Development is a tool to help in that process. Designed as a complement to Leadership for a Better World (2nd Edition) and for use in applications of the SCM in retreats and workshops, this book, The Social Change Model: Facilitating Leadership Development, provides resources for leadership educators to teach the SCM via interactive, scaffolded learning exercises. The activities and resources provided are designed to work in curricular and co-curricular settings, and are appropriate for those new to the SCM and those with a more advanced understanding of leadership studies.

Brief History of Leadership

The concept of leadership has evolved a lot over the past 2,000 years. There are hundreds of definitions of leadership (Rost, 1991) and new approaches emerge regularly. Early approaches to leadership were leader-centric and focused on an individual's traits (Bass, 1990; Rost, 1991). The Great Man Theory approached leadership as a genetic quality, passed down over generations. The early 1900s brought a new approach to leadership, one focused on inherent traits, rather than bloodlines. While trait theory is still present, our understanding of leadership has expanded exponentially over the past 100 years. Mid-twentieth century scholars researched behavioral approaches to leadership giving way to situational and contingency theories of leadership (Bass, 1990; Rost, 1991).

Although trait theory, situational leadership, and behavioral approaches to leadership are still in use today, a more relational, post-industrial approach to leadership emerged at the end of the twentieth century. Leadership, a pivotal book by J. M. Burns (1978), signaled a shift from a leader-centric view of leadership to a process-oriented approach to leadership. Burns highlighted the importance of ethics and the relationship between people in leadership positions, with transactional leadership being a quid pro quo model more akin to management, and transforming leadership the foundation for leadership that is most used today.

The Social Change Model of Leadership Development

The postindustrial paradigm (Rost, 1991) that emerged in the 1980s influenced current approaches to leadership, particularly the Relational Leadership Model (Komives, Lucas, & McMahon, 2013) and the Social Change Model (SCM) of Leadership Development (Higher Education Research Institute [HERI], 1996). Astin and Leland's (1991) hallmark study of women involved in social change movements set the groundwork for the Social Change Model's creation. Shortly after Women of Influence, Women of Vision (Astin & Leland, 1991) was published, an Eisenhower grant was made available to college and university researchers interested in leadership development. Alexander and Helen Astin served as the co-principal investigators for a grant to understand student leadership and social change. They brought together the top scholars on leadership with student affairs professionals engaged in student leadership work.

This research team called themselves "the Ensemble" and they adopted an approach to their work that would mirror the product they developed. This team was comprised of many musicians, which was an important influence on the development of the SCM as it informed how the group came together. Like a jazz ensemble, the SCM Ensemble team built off of the work of one another in an organic manner, and fostered innovation and creativity in the process of developing the SCM.

Once the Ensemble had a working approach to their new model, they hosted a summit to examine and tune the model with representatives from several professional organizations whose missions focused on leadership. In 1996, Helen Astin published a foundational article about the SCM in About Campus and the Social Change Model Guidebook (HERI, 1996) was released. Over the past 20 years, "the social change model of leadership development and the seven C's of social change have played a prominent role in shaping the curricula and formats of undergraduate leadership education initiatives in colleges and universities throughout the country" (Kezar, Carducci, & Contreras-McGavin, 2006, p. 142).

Assumptions of the SCM

The Social Change Model is an approach to leadership that is both process-oriented and outcome-oriented, approaching "leadership as a purposeful, collaborative, values-based process that results in positive social change" (Komives, Wagner, & Associates, 2017, p. 19). Although social change is the ultimate goal of the SCM, the socially responsible process of leadership it outlines is equally as important. The underlying assumptions of the SCM are as follows:

• Leadership is socially responsible; it impacts change on behalf of others.
• Leadership is collaborative.
• Leadership is a process, not a position.
• Leadership is inclusive and accessible to all people.
• Leadership is values-based.
• Community involvement/service is a powerful vehicle for leadership.

(Astin 1996; Bonous-Hammarth, 2001; HERI, 1996; Komives, Wagner, & Associates, 2016)

These assumptions are the foundation for the Social Change Model, which consists of three levels of development and eight core values. At the Individual level, the SCM values are Consciousness of Self, Congruence, and Commitment. Next, at the Group level, the SCM values include Common Purpose, Collaboration, and Controversy with Civility. The final level, Society/Community, consists of the value of Citizenship. The final value of the SCM is Change. Each of these C values is laid out in its own chapter in both Leadership for a Better World (Komives, Wagner, & Associates, 2017) and in this volume. Change is split into two chapters, with an overview of Change processes as well as a chapter on Social Change. See Figure 1.1 for a visual representation of the SCM and Chapter Four for a greater overview of the SCM.

Figure 1.1: The Social Change Model of Leadership Development

Limitations and Benefits of the SCM

The Social Change Model has been used for twenty years on and off college campuses. While it is highly beneficial, it is not without critique. The Social Change Model was created and conceived as a tool for use in college student leadership contexts, so the initial concept of the SCM and its related research has focused primarily on undergraduate college students. It is also an aspirational model of leadership, one that sometimes exists in contrast to organizational realities. This disconnect does not invalidate the Social Change Model, but is important to acknowledge and understand as a leadership educator. Helping participants understand this disconnect and work toward an aspirational approach to leadership across sectors is an important learning objective of the Social Change Model.

Another noted critique of the Social Change Model is related to what can be perceived as missing C values, such as creativity, culture, curiosity, and caring. The Social Change Model is not a perfect approach to leadership, and as a values-based, process-oriented model, it cannot be all-encompassing. Asking participants to consider other missing values is another tool for learning about the Social Change Model. Leadership educators may wish to consider other leadership models to flesh out important values that speak to their individual missions or institutional priorities. The original Ensemble encouraged educators to adapt the model for their context, and some campuses have emphasized additional values in the framework of the model.

Critiques of the Social Change Model are useful to leadership educators engaged in teaching and learning. Just as important to understanding the SCM are the benefits of the model. The SCM can be used for individuals at different levels of developmental readiness and is more complex than a surface examination may suggest. The Social Change Model is one of only a few approaches to leadership with both an assessment tool and research published in refereed journals. The Socially Responsible Leadership Scale (SRLS) was developed by Tracy Tyree (1998) and has since been adapted to increase validity and reliability of the instrument (Appel-Silbaugh, 2005; Dugan, Komives, & Associates, 2006). The SRLS is available through the National Clearinghouse for Leadership Programs (www.nclp.umd.edu) and can be used by individuals or groups as an assessment tool for each of the C values (thestamp.umd.edu/srls).

The SCM also serves as the foundational theory undergirding the Multi-Institutional Study of Leadership (MSL) and measured by the SRLS. The MSL is an international research study designed originally by John Dugan and Susan Komives in 2005 to measure the values of the SCM. The MSL has conducted six administrations of the instrument, in 2006, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, and 2015. Many refereed publications, reports, theses, and dissertations have studied the data from...