Bio-pigmentation and Biotechnological Implementations
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List of Contributors xv
Introduction xvii
1 Introduction of Natural Pigments From Microorganisms 1
Siyuan Wang, Fuchao Xu, and Jixun Zhan
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Microbial Pigments from Eukaryotic Sources 2
1.2.1 Pigments from Algae 2
1.2.2 Pigments from Fungi 4
1.2.3 Pigments from Yeasts 7
1.3 Natural Pigments from Prokaryotes 9
1.3.1 Natural Pigments from Cyanobacteria 9
1.3.2 Natural Pigments from Bacteria 10
1.4 Conclusion 16
References 16
2 Establishing Novel Cell Factories Producing Natural Pigments In Europe 23
Gerit Tolborg, Thomas Isbrandt, Thomas Ostenfeld Larsen, and Mhairi Workman
2.1 Introduction 23
2.2 Colorants 25
2.2.1 Classification of Colorants 25
2.2.2 Monascus Pigments 26
2.2.3 Biosynthesis of Monascus Pigments 29
2.2.4 Derivatives of Monascus Pigments 31
2.3 Screening for Monascus Pigment-Producing Cell Factories for the European Market 32
2.3.1 Cell Factory Selection and Identification 32
2.3.2 From Single Pigment Producers to High-Performance Cell Factories 33
2.4 Assessment of the Color Yield 34
2.4.1 Pigment Purification and Quantification 34
2.4.2 Detection and Identification 37
2.4.3 Quantification 38
2.4.4 CIELAB 41
2.5 Optimizing Cellular Performance: Growth and Pigment Production 41
2.5.1 Assessment of Classical Physiological Parameters 42
2.5.2 Media Composition 42
2.5.3 Cultivation Parameters 44
2.5.4 Type of Cultivation 46
2.5.5 Metabolic Engineering 48
2.6 Pigment Properties 50
2.7 Conclusion 51
References 51
3 Color-Producing Extremophiles 61
Eva García-López, Alberto Alcázar, Ana María Moreno, and Cristina Cid
3.1 Introduction 61
3.2 Color-Producing Extremophiles 62
3.2.1 Thermophiles and Hyperthermophiles 63
3.2.2 Psychrophiles and Psychrotolerants 63
3.2.3 Alkaliphiles 66
3.2.4 Acidophiles 66
3.2.5 Piezophiles and Piezotolerants 66
3.2.6 Halophiles and Halotolerants 67
3.2.7 Radiophiles 67
3.3 Microbial Pigments 68
3.3.1 Chlorophylls and Bacteriochlorophylls 68
3.3.2 Carotenoids and Phycobilins 69
3.3.3 Violacein 70
3.3.4 Prodigiosin 70
3.3.5 Pyocyanin 70
3.3.6 Azaphilones 70
3.3.7 Bacteriorhodopsin 71
3.3.8 Cytochromes 71
3.3.9 Other 72
3.4 Biotechnological Applications of Microbial Pigments from Extremophiles 73
3.4.1 Applications in the Food Industry 74
3.4.2 Applications in the Pharmaceutical Industry 77
3.4.3 Applications in the Textile Industry 78
3.4.4 Applications as Laboratory Tools 78
3.4.5 Applications in Bioremediation 79
3.4.6 Development of Microbial Fuel Cells 79
3.4.7 Biotechnological Production of Natural Pigments 80
3.5 Conclusion 80
Acknowledgments 80
References 80
4 Current Carotenoid Production Using Microorganisms 87
Laurent Dufossé
4.1 Introduction 87
4.2 ß-carotene 88
4.2.1 B. trispora 88
4.2.2 Phycomyces blakesleeanus 90
4.2.3 Mucor circinelloides 91
4.2.4 Applications 91
4.3 Lycopene 91
4.3.1 B. trispora 92
4.3.2 Fusarium sporotrichioides 93
4.4 Astaxanthin 93
4.4.1 X. dendrorhous, Formerly Phaffia rhodozyma 94
4.4.2 Agrobacterium aurantiacum and Other Bacteria 95
4.4.3 Advantages over Other Carotenoids 95
4.4.4 Astaxanthin for Salmon and Trout Feeds 96
4.4.5 Astaxanthin for Humans 97
4.5 Zeaxanthin 97
4.6 Canthaxanthin 98
4.7 Torulene and Thorularhodin 99
4.8 Prospects for Carotenoid Production by Genetically Modified Microorganisms 99
4.8.1 Escherichia coli and Other Hosts 99
4.8.2 Directed Evolution and Combinatorial Biosynthesis 101
4.9 Conclusion 102
References 104
5 C50 Carotenoids: Occurrence, Biosynthesis, Glycosylation, and Metabolic Engineering For Their Overproduction 107
Nadja A. Henke, Petra Peters-Wendisch, Volker F. Wendisch, and Sabine A.E. Heider
5.1 Introduction 107
5.2 Occurrence and Biological Function of C50 Carotenoids 108
5.3 Biosynthesis of C50 Carotenoids 110
5.4 Glycosylation of C50 Carotenoids 114
5.5 Overproduction of C50 Carotenoids by Metabolic Engineering 115
5.6 Conclusion 118
Acknowledgments 119
References 119
6 Biopigments and Microbial Biosynthesis of ¿¿¿¿-Carotenoids 127
Rosemary C. Nwabuogu, Jennifer Lau, and Om V. Singh
6.1 Introduction 127
6.2 Characterization of Biological Pigments 129
6.2.1 Tetrapyrrole Derivatives 129
6.2.2 N-heterocyclic Derivatives 130
6.2.3 Isoprenoid Derivatives 131
6.2.4 Benzopran Derivatives 132
6.2.5 Quinones 132
6.2.6 Melanins 133
6.3 Biosynthetic Routes of ß-carotene 133
6.3.1 Fermentation of ß-carotene 138
6.4 Molecular Regulation of ß-carotene Biosynthesis 146
6.5 Commercialization of ß-carotene 147
6.6 Conclusion 151
References 151
7 Biotechnological Production of Melanins With Microorganisms 161
Guillermo Gosset
7.1 Introduction 161
7.2 Microbial Production of Melanins 163
7.3 Production of Melanins with Engineered Microorganisms 165
7.4 Conclusion 169
References 170
8 Biochemistry and Molecular Mechanisms of Monascus Pigments 173
Changlu Wang, Di Chen, and Jiancheng Qi
8.1 Introduction 173
8.2 Monascus Pigments 174
8.3 The Properties of Monascus Pigments 176
8.3.1 Solubility 176
8.3.2 Stability 177
8.3.3 Safety 177
8.4 Functional Properties of Monascus Pigments 177
8.4.1 Antimicrobial Activities 178
8.4.2 Anti-inflammatory Activities 178
8.4.3 Anti-obesity Activities 178
8.4.4 Anticancer Activities 178
8.5 Biosynthetic Pathway of Monascus Pigments 179
8.6 Biosynthetic Pathway of Related Genes 181
8.7 Factors Affecting Monascus Pigment Production 184
8.7.1 Solid-State Fermentation 185
8.7.2 Submerged Fermentation 186
8.7.3 Carbon Source 186
8.7.4 Nitrogen Source 187
8.7.5 Temperature 187
8.7.6 Light 187
References 187
9 Diversity and Applications of Versatile Pigments Produced By Monascus Sp 193
Sunil H. Koli, Rahul K. Suryawanshi, Chandrashekhar D. Patil, and Satish V. Patil
9.1 Introduction 193
9.2 Pigment-Producing Monascus Strains 195
9.3 Various Types of Monascus Pigments 199
9.4 Extraction and Purification of Monascus Pigments 203
9.5 Detection and Purification 204
9.5.1 UV-Vis Spectrophotometric Methods 204
9.5.2 Column Chromatography 204
9.5.3 Thin-Layer Chromatography 205
9.5.4 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography 205
9.6 Applications 206
9.6.1 Food Colorants 206
9.6.2 Biological Role 206
9.7 Conclusion 209
Acknowledgments 209
References 209
10 Microbial Pigment Production Utilizing Agro-Industrial Waste and Its Applications 215
Chidambaram Kulandaisamy Venil, Nur Zulaikha Binti Yusof, Claira Arul Aruldass, and Wan Azlina Ahmad
10.1 Introduction 215
10.2 Agro-industrial Waste Generation: A Scenario 216
10.3 Microbial Pigments 216
10.4 Production of Microbial Pigments Utilizing Agro-industrial Waste from Different Industries 223
10.5 Case Study: Production of Violacein by Chromobacterium violaceum Grown in Agricultural Wastes 225
10.5.1 Introduction 225
10.5.2 Materials and Methods 226
10.5.3 Results and Discussion 229
10.6 Conclusion 235
Acknowledgments 235
References 235
11 Microbial Pigments: Potential Functions and Prospects 241
P. Akilandeswari and B.V. Pradeep
11.1 Introduction 241
11.1.1 Pigments 242
11.1.2 Types of Pigments 242
11.1.3 Microbial Pigments 242
11.1.4 Use of Pigments 243
11.1.5 Advantages of Natural Pigments 243
11.1.6 Disadvantages of Synthetic Dyes 243
11.2 Potential Sources of Microbial Pigments 244
11.2.1 Actinomycetes 244
11.2.2 Bacteria 245
11.2.3 Fungi 245
11.3 Physical Factors Influencing Microbial Pigments 246
11.4 Chemical Factors Influencing Microbial Pigments 247
11.5 Fermentation Practices in Pigment Production 248
11.5.1 Solid-State Fermentation 248
11.5.2 Submerged Fermentation 248
11.6 Characterization and Purification Analysis 249
11.7 Biocolors from Microbes and their Potential Functions 250
11.7.1 Pharmaceutical Industry 250
11.7.2 Food Colorants 255
11.7.3 Textile Dyeing 256
References 257
12 The Microbial World of Biocolor Production 263
Roshan Gul, Raman Kumar, and Anil K. Sharma
12.1 Introduction 263
12.2 Pigments Produced by Microorganisms 265
12.3 Classification of Pigments 265
12.3.1 Riboflavin 265
12.3.2 ß-carotene 265
12.3.3 Canthaxanthin 268
12.3.4 Carotenoids 268
12.3.5 Prodigiosin 268
12.3.6 Phycocyanin 268
12.3.7 Violacein 268
12.3.8 Astaxanthin 268
12.4 Benefits and Applications of Microbial Pigments 269
12.5 Conclusion 272
References 273
Index 279
