History of Nanotechnology
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Preface xi
Foreword xiii
1 How Old is Nanotechnology? 1
Mrinal Chakre and Madhuri Sharon
Preamble 1
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Nano-Geosystem for Abiotic Nanoparticles Formation 5
1.2.1 Nanoparticles Occuring in Mineral Composites 7
1.2.1.1 Allophane and Smectites 7
1.2.1.2 Opal 8
1.2.2 Nanoparticles From Volcanic Activities 9
1.2.3 Nanoparticles From Dust of Cosmic Sources 9
1.2.4 Nanoparticles From Desert Surfaces 10
1.3 Nano-Biosystem Consisting of Biotic Nanoparticles 11
1.3.1 Nanobe 12
1.3.2 Virus 13
1.3.3 Bacteria 14
1.4 Concluding Remarks 16
References 17
2 Prehistoric Evidence of Nanotechnology 21
Aparna A Bhairappa and Madhuri Sharon
2.1 Introduction 21
2.2 Evolutionary Study and Theories 22
2.2.1 Aristotelian Theory 25
2.2.2 Einstein's General Theory of Relativity 25
2.2.3 Hubble's Hypothesis 26
2.3 Prehistoric Era 28
2.4 What Is Nanotechnology? 29
2.5 Was Nature the First to Fabricate Nanomaterials? 30
2.6 Concluding Remarks 34
References 35
3 Nanotechnology in Ancient India 37
Vaishali A Gargade
3.1 Introduction 37
3.2 Glimpses of Remnants of Nanotechnology-Based Materials Made in Ancient India 39
3.3 Advancement of Nanoscale Metallurgy in Ancient India 40
3.3.1 Damascus Sword 41
3.3.2 Iron Pillars 43
3.4 Applications of Nanometals in Ancient India 45
3.4.1 Ornaments 45
3.4.2 Paints and Coatings 46
3.5 Nanomedicine Evolved in Ancient India that Still Prevails Today 47
3.6 Carbon Nanoforms Used in Cosmetics in Ancient India that still Prevail Today 51
3.6.1 Herbal Kajal 51
3.7 Concluding Remarks 52
References 53
4 Are Bhasma Nanomedicine of Ancient Times 57
Archana S Injal
4.1 Introduction 57
4.1.1 Ayurveda: An Age-Old Science That Originated in India with Dhanvantari 58
4.1.2 History of Ayurveda 60
4.2 Bhasma: An Ancient Indian Medicine Concept Also Followed by the Chinese and Egyptians 62
4.2.1 Types of Nano-Size Bhasma 63
4.2.1.1 Metal Bhasma: Element Form (Toxic), Compound Form (Safe) 63
4.2.1.2 Metal Mixture/Alloy Bhasma 64
4.2.1.3 Herbo-Mineral Bhasma 72
4.2.1.4 Other Bhasma 74
4.2.2 Properties of Bhasma 75
4.2.2.1 Physical Properties 75
4.2.2.2 Chemical Properties 77
4.3 The Similarity of Bhasma Preparation to Contemporary Nanoparticle Synthesis Method 78
4.4 Various Medicinal Uses of Bhasma 81
4.5 Concluding Remarks 81
References 84
5 The Maya's Knowledge of Nanotechnology 91
Vinod P Sinoorkar
5.1 Introduction 91
5.2 The Maya 92
5.2.1 Yucatec Maya 92
5.2.2 Chiapas 92
5.2.3 Belize 93
5.2.4 Guatemala 93
5.3 The Maya Civilization 94
5.3.1 The Maya During the Preclassic Period 95
5.3.1.1 The Maya of the Early Preclassic Period 95
5.3.1.2 The Maya During the Middle Preclassic Period 96
5.3.1.3 The Maya During the Late Preclassic Period 97
5.3.2 The Maya During the Classic Period 97
5.4 Some Characteristic Features of the Maya 99
5.4.1 Beauty Expressions 99
5.4.2 Jade: The Green Gold of the Maya 100
5.4.3 Maya Hieroglyphics 100
5.4.4 The Maya's Eyes on the Heavens 101
5.4.5 The Maya Calendar 102
5.4.6 Maya Art 103
5.4.7 Maya Paintings 104
5.5 Maya Blue and Maya Yellow - Ancient Nanostructured Materials 105
5.5.1 Resistance to Weathering 107
5.5.2 Preparation of Maya Blue 107
5.5.3 Chemical Composition of Maya Blue 108
5.5.4 Are Maya Paintings Nano Based? 109
5.6 Concluding Remarks 110
References 110
6 Did Nanotechnology Flourish During the Roman Empire and Medieval Periods? 113
N B Patkar and Manisha Sharan
6.1 Introduction 113
6.1.1 Transition Elements of the d-Block Elements 114
6.1.1.1 Melting and Boiling Point 115
6.1.1.2 Formation of Colored Ions 115
6.2 Nanotechnology During Roman Civilization 116
6.2.1 Historical Records of Use of Luster Ceramics 116
6.2.2 Technology of Luster Decorations of Ceramics 118
6.2.3 Soluble Gold Concept and Use of Soluble Gold 119
6.2.3.1 Development of the Lycurgus Cup 122
6.3 Nanotechnology During the Medieval Period of European Civilization 125
6.3.1 Medieval Metals and Glass 125
6.3.2 Use of Gold, Silver and Other Metal Nanoparticles in the Middle Ages 126
6.3.3 Purple of Cassius 134
6.3.4 Contribution of Johann Kunckel 136
6.4 Conclusion 136
References 137
7 European Nano Knowledge That Led to Faraday's Understanding of Gold Nanoparticles 141
Anil Kumar S Katti and Madhuri Sharon
7.1 Introduction 141
7.1.1 Reflection of Light 142
7.2 Michael Faraday's Painstaking Efforts 146
7.3 The Role of Gustav Mie and Richard Gans in Understanding Metal Nanoparticles 148
7.4 Zsigmondy's Seed-Mediated Method 149
7.5 Research that Led to the Understanding of Metal Nanoparticles Optical Properties 150
7.5.1 Surface Plasmon Resonance and Plasmonics 150
7.5.2 Quantum Confinement Effect 155
7.6 Approaches to Fabricate Nanomaterials 159
7.7 Advancements in Various Fabrication Methods of Nanoparticles 161
7.7.1 Physical Methods 161
7.7.1.1 Mechanical 161
7.7.1.2 Melt Mixing 165
7.7.1.3 Hydrothermal and Solvothermal Synthesis 166
7.7.1.4 Templating 166
7.7.1.5 Electron Beam Lithography 168
7.7.1.6 Vapor Phase Synthesis 169
7.7.1.7 Gas Phase Methods 171
7.7.1.8 Thermal Decomposition and Combustion 173
7.7.1.9 Sputtering 174
7.7.1.10 Arc Discharge 177
7.7.1.11 Laser Ablation and Pulsed Laser Ablation 180
7.7.1.12 Ion Implantation 181
7.7.1.13 Synthesis of Nanoporous Polymers Using Membranes 182
7.7.2 Chemical Methods 184
7.7.2.1 Colloidal Methods 184
7.7.2.2 Conventional Sol-Gel Method 184
7.7.2.3 LB Technique 185
7.7.2.4 Microemulsion-Based Methods 186
7.7.3 Biosynthesis or Biological Methods of Synthesizing Nanoparticles 187
7.7.3.1 Nanometal Synthesis Using Microorganisms 187
7.7.3.2 Nanometal Synthesis Using Fungi and Actinomycetes 192
7.7.3.3 Nanometals Synthesis Using Plants 193
7.7.3.4 Nanometals Biosynthesis Using Algae 194
7.7.3.5 Nanometals Biosynthesis Using DNA 195
7.7.3.6 Nanometals Biosynthesis Using Enzymes 196
7.7.4 Hybrid Methods 197
7.8 Concluding Observations 197
References 198
8 Contemporary History of Nanotechnology 213
CH Godale and Madhuri Sharon
8.1 Introduction to the Concept of Nano after 1959 214
8.2 Feynman's Idea: Entry of Nanotechnology in Modern Science 215
8.3 Drexler's Engines of Creation 217
8.4 Impetus Given by SEM, TEM and AFM 218
8.5 The Entry of Nano Forms of Carbon 219
8.5.1 Fullerene: The First Fabricated Carbon Nanomaterial 221
8.5.2 Carbon Nanotubes 225
8.5.3 Graphene 230
8.6 Advancements in Various Fabrication Methods 232
8.7 Immeasurable Applications of Nanotechnology in All Fields of Science 233
8.7.1 Electronics 233
8.7.2 Energy 236
8.7.3 The Environment 237
8.7.4 Automobiles 239
8.7.5 Agriculture and Food 240
8.7.6 Industries 241
8.7.7 Textiles 242
8.7.8 Cosmetics 242
8.7.9 Domestic Appliances 244
8.7.10 Space and Defense 246
8.7.11 Therapeutics and Diagnostics 249
8.7.11.1 Early Detection of Cancer 249
8.7.11.2 Bioimaging and Biological Labeling 251
8.7.11.3 Targeted Drug Delivery 251
8.7.11.4 Photothermal Therapy 252
8.7.11.5 Tissue Engineering and Better Body Implants 252
8.7.11.6 Nanotechnology-Based Biochips and Microarrays 253
8.7.11.7 Nanotechnology-Based Cytogenetics 254
8.7.11.8 Nanotechnology for Protein Detection 254
8.7.11.9 Nanoparticles for Tracking Stem Cells 255
8.7.11.10 Nanonephrology: A New Attempt at Tackling Renal Disease 255
8.7.11.11 Nano Intervention for Neurodegenerative Diseases 256
8.7.11.12 Possibility of Medical Application of Molecular Nanotechnology 257
8.7.11.13 Nanorobots and Theranostics 258
8.7.11.14 Nanomachines for Cell Repairs 258
8.8 Important Milestones of Nanotechnology 259
8.9 Summary 259
References 264
Index 271
