Water Engineering
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Preface xvii
Acknowledgments xix
1 Introduction to Water Systems 1
1.1 Components of Water Systems 2
1.2 Required Capacity 2
1.3 Sources of Water Supply 3
1.4 Rainwater 4
1.5 Surface Water 5
1.6 Groundwater 6
1.7 Purification Works 9
1.8 Transmission Works 12
1.9 Distribution Works 12
1.10 Water Systems Management 15
1.11 Individual Water Systems 17
Problems/Questions 18
References 19
2 Water Sources: Surface Water 21
2.1 Sources of Surface Water 21
2.2 Safe Yield of Streams 24
2.3 Storage as a Function of Draft and Runoff 24
2.4 Design Storage 25
2.5 Loss by Evaporation, Seepage, and Silting 27
2.6 Area and Volume of Reservoirs 31
2.7 Management of Catchment Areas 32
2.8 Reservoir Siting 33
2.9 Reservoir Management 33
2.10 Dams and Dikes 34
2.11 Spillways 36
2.12 Intakes 37
2.13 Diversion Works 38
2.14 Collection of Rainwater 39
Problems/Questions 41
References 42
3 Water Sources: Groundwater 45
3.1 Porosity and Effective Porosity 45
3.2 Permeability 47
3.3 Groundwater Geology 47
3.4 Groundwater Situation in The United States 48
3.5 Types of Aquifers 48
3.6 Groundwater Movement 49
3.7 Darcy's Law 49
3.8 Aquifer Characteristics 50
3.9 Well Hydraulics 52
3.10 Nonsteady Radial Flow 52
3.11 Prediction of Drawdown 60
3.12 Multiple-Well Systems 63
3.13 Aquifer Boundaries 67
3.14 Characteristics of Wells 70
3.15 Yield of a Well 71
3.16 Well Design 73
3.17 Well Construction 74
3.18 Evaluation of Aquifer Behavior 77
3.19 Groundwater Quality Management 78
3.20 Groundwater Under the Direct Influence of Surface Water 79
Problems/Questions 84
References 85
4 Quantities of Water Demand 87
4.1 Design Period 87
4.2 Design Population 88
4.3 Water Consumption 92
4.4 Variations or Patterns of Water Demand 96
4.5 Demand and Drainage Loads of Buildings 104
Problems/Questions 106
References 106
5 Water Hydraulics, Transmission, and Appurtenances 109
5.1 Fluid Mechanics, Hydraulics, and Water Transmission 109
5.2 Fluid Transport 121
5.3 Capacity and Size of Conduits 152
5.4 Multiple Lines 154
5.5 Cross-Sections 155
5.6 Structural Requirements 155
5.7 Location 156
5.8 Materials of Construction 159
5.9 Appurtenances 160
5.10 Additional Hydraulics Topics 164
Problems/Questions 172
References 178
6 Water Distribution Systems: Components, Design, and Operation 181
6.1 Distribution Systems 181
6.2 System Components 183
6.3 System Capacity 185
6.4 System Pressure 185
6.5 Field Performance of Existing Systems 186
6.6 Office Studies of Pipe Networks 187
6.7 Industrial Water Systems 197
6.8 Management, Operation, and Maintenance of Distribution Systems 197
6.9 Practical Design and Analysis of Water Distribution Systems 202
Problems/Questions 205
References 210
7 Water Distribution Systems: Modeling and Computer Applications 213
7.1 Watergems Software 213
7.2 Water Demand Patterns 213
7.3 Energy Losses and Gains 214
7.4 Pipe Networks 215
7.5 Network Analysis 216
7.6 Water Quality Modeling 216
7.7 Automated Optimization 218
7.8 Practical Applications of Computer-Aided Water Supply System Analysis 232
Problems/Questions 233
References 240
8 Pumping, Storage, and Dual Water Systems 241
8.1 Pumps and Pumping Stations 241
8.2 Pump Characteristics 241
8.3 Service Storage 248
8.4 Location of Storage 251
8.5 Elevation of Storage 251
8.6 Types of Distributing Reservoirs 251
8.7 Dual Water Supply Systems 257
8.8 Raw Water Intake Structures and Raw Water Pumping Wells 260
Problems/Questions 262
References 266
9 Cross-Connection Control 267
9.1 Introduction 267
9.2 Public Health Significance of Cross-Connections 268
9.3 Theory of Backflow and Backsiphonage 276
9.4 Methods and Devices for the Prevention of Backflow and Backsiphonage 280
9.5 Reduced Pressure Principle Backflow Preventer 285
9.6 Administration of a Cross-Connection Control Program 289
9.7 Pressure and Leakage Tests of Water Mains 291
Problems/Questions 293
References 295
10 Water Quality Characteristics and Drinking Water Standards 297
10.1 Objectives of Water-Quality Management 297
10.2 Natural Available Water Resources 297
10.3 Public Health Issues and Drinking Water Treatment 298
10.4 Physical Characteristics and Constituents 300
10.5 Chemical Characteristics and Constituents 301
10.6 Biological Characteristics and Constituents 307
10.7 Radiological Characteristics and Constituents 310
10.8 Drinking Water Quality Standards 311
10.9 Industrial Water Quality Standards 313
10.10 Bathing Waters 317
10.11 Fishing and Shellfish Waters 317
10.12 Irrigation Waters 319
10.13 Quality of Water from Various Sources 319
10.14 Good Quality Water 320
10.15 Self-Purification and Storage 320
10.16 Objectives of Water Examination 321
10.17 Methods of Examination 321
10.18 Standard Tests 322
10.19 Expression of Analytical Results 322
10.20 Tapping a Source of Water 322
Problems/Questions 323
References 323
11 Water Treatment Systems 325
11.1 Purpose of Water Treatment 325
11.2 Treatment of Raw Water 325
11.3 Unit Operations and Unit Processes 328
11.4 Gas Transfer 330
11.5 Ion Transfer 330
11.6 Solute Stabilization 333
11.7 Solids Transfer 333
11.8 Nutrient or Molecular Transfer and Interfacial Contact 338
11.9 Disinfection 339
11.10 Miscellaneous Operations/Processes 340
11.11 Coordination of Unit Operations/Processes 340
11.12 Selection of Water Treatment Technologies 341
11.13 Control of Turbidity, Color, and Biological Contamination 342
11.14 Organic Contaminant Removal 343
11.15 Inorganic Contaminant Removal and Control 345
11.16 Water Renovation 348
11.17 Treatment Kinetics 350
11.18 Monitoring Water Quality 351
11.19 Distribution to Customers 352
11.20 Glossary of Water Treatment Systems 352
Problems/Questions 359
References 360
12 Chemicals Feeding, Mixing, and Flocculation 363
12.1 Introduction 363
12.2 Handling, Storing, and Feeding Chemicals 363
12.3 Rapid Mixing 367
12.4 Rapid Mixing and Slow Flocculation 372
12.5 Flocculation 373
12.6 Mixing and Stirring Devices 373
12.7 Flocculator Performance 391
12.8 Costs 393
Problems/Questions 394
References 395
13 Aeration, Gas Transfer, and Oxidation 397
13.1 Sources of Gases in Water 397
13.2 Objectives of Gas Transfer 397
13.3 Absorption and Desorption of Gases 398
13.4 Rates of Gas Absorption and Desorption 400
13.5 Types of Aerators 402
13.6 Factors Governing Gas Transfer 405
13.7 Design of Gravity Aerators 405
13.8 Design of Fixed-Spray Aerators 406
13.9 Design of Movable-Spray Aerators 406
13.10 Design of Injection Aerators 407
13.11 Mechanical Aerators 408
13.12 Oxidation for Removal of Dissolved Iron and Manganese 408
13.13 Removal of Specific Gases 411
13.14 Removal of Odors and Tastes 414
Problems/Questions 414
References 415
14 Coagulation 417
14.1 Introduction 417
14.2 The Colloidal State 417
14.3 Colloidal Structure and Stability of Colloids 418
14.4 Destabilization of Colloids 421
14.5 Influencing Factors 423
14.6 Coagulants 425
14.7 Coagulation Control 432
Problems/Questions 435
Special Reference 436
References 436
15 Screening, Sedimentation, and Flotation 439
15.1 Treatment Objectives 439
15.2 Screening 439
15.3 Sedimentation 439
15.4 Types of Sedimentation 439
15.5 Settling Basins 447
15.6 Upflow Clarification 451
15.7 General Dimensions of Settling Tanks 455
15.8 Sludge Removal 456
15.9 Inlet Hydraulics 456
15.10 Outlet Hydraulics 459
15.11 Sedimentation Tank Loading, Detention, And Performance 459
15.12 Shallow Depth Settlers 462
15.13 Gravity Thickening of Sludge 464
15.14 Natural Flotation 467
15.15 Dissolved Air Flotation Process 468
Problems/Questions 480
References 482
16 Conventional Filtration 485
16.1 Granular Water Filters 485
16.2 Granular Wastewater Filters 487
16.3 Granular Filtering Materials 488
16.4 Preparation of Filter Sand 490
16.5 Hydraulics of Filtration 491
16.6 Hydraulics of Fluidized Beds--Filter Backwashing 494
16.7 Removal of Impurities 497
16.8 Kinetics of Filtration 497
16.9 Filter Design 498
16.10 Filter Appurtenances and Rate Control 505
16.11 Length of Filter Run 506
16.12 Filter Troubles 507
16.13 Plant Performance 508
Problems/Questions 509
References 510
17 Alternative and Membrane Filtration Technologies 513
17.1 Introduction of Filtration Technologies 513
17.2 Direct Filtration 514
17.3 Slow Sand Filtration 516
17.4 Package Plant Filtration 518
17.5 Diatomaceous Earth Filtration 524
17.6 Cartridge Filtration 526
17.7 Membrane Filtration 527
17.8 Selecting the Appropriate Filtration Treatment System 540
Problems/Questions 541
References 542
18 Disinfection and Disinfection By-products Control 545
18.1 Purpose of Disinfection 545
18.2 Pathogens, Disinfection, and Disinfectants 545
18.3 Disinfection by Heat 546
18.4 Disinfection by Ultraviolet Light 546
18.5 Disinfection by Chemicals 546
18.6 Theory of Chemical Disinfection 548
18.7 Kinetics of Chemical Disinfection 549
18.8 Disinfection by Ozone 554
18.9 Disinfection by Chlorine 556
18.10 Free Available Chlorine and Free Chlorination 556
18.11 Combined Available Chlorine and Chloramination 558
18.12 Breakpoint Reactions of Ammonia 559
18.13 Dechlorination 559
18.14 Disinfection by-Products 560
18.15 Chemical Technology of Disinfection 562
18.16 Operational Technology of Chlorination 562
18.17 Operational Technology of Sodium Hypochlorination 567
18.18 Operational Technology of Calcium Hypochlorination 570
18.19 Operational Technology of Chlorine Dioxide Disinfection 570
18.20 Operational Technology of Ozonation 571
18.21 Operational Technology of UV Disinfection 574
18.22 Recent Developments in Disinfection Management--Log Removal/Inactivation Credits of Drinking Water Treatment Processes 582
Problems/Questons 589
References 591
19 Chemical Precipitation and Water Softening 593
19.1 Chemical Precipitation 593
19.2 Description of Precipitation Process 593
19.3 Applicability 596
19.4 Advantages and Disadvantages 596
19.5 Design Criteria 596
19.6 Performance--Jar Testing 597
19.7 Operation and Maintenance 597
19.8 Costs 598
19.9 Precipitation of Hardness and Carbonates--Water Softening 598
19.10 Recarbonation After Water Softening 602
19.11 Recovering Lime After Water Softening 602
Problems/Questions 603
References 603
20 Adsorption and Ion Exchange 605
20.1 Adsorption Processes 605
20.2 Adsorption Kinetics and Equilibria 605
20.3 Characteristics of Adsorbents 608
20.4 Adsorption of Odors and Tastes 610
20.5 Pilot Carbon Column Tests 612
20.6 Breakthrough Curve 613
20.7 Process Technology 614
20.8 Ion Exchange 624
20.9 Ion Exchangers 626
20.10 The Ion Exchange Process 628
20.11 Ion Selectivity 630
20.12 Kinetics of Ion Exchange 631
20.13 Ion Exchange Technology 632
20.14 Water Softening by Ion Exchange 633
20.15 Demineralization 634
20.16 Concentration of Ions 635
20.17 Ion Exchange Membranes and Dialysis 635
20.18 Modular Treatment Units for Removal of Radionuclides 636
20.19 Case Study I: Nitrate Removal: McFarland, CA 636
20.20 Case Study II: Fluoride Removal in Gila Bend, AZ 637
Problems/Questions 637
References 639
21 Chemical Stabilization and Control of Corrosion and Biofilms 641
21.1 Chemical Stabilization 641
21.2 Corrosion 643
21.3 The Corrosion Reaction 644
21.4 Control of Corrosion 648
21.5 Lead and Copper Corrosion 650
21.6 Lead Corrosion Control 651
21.7 Biofilm Control 655
Problems/Questions 659
References 660
22 Residues Management, Safety, and Emergency Response 661
22.1 Management of Residues 661
22.2 Types of Residuals 662
22.3 Applicable Regulations 663
22.4 Residual Solids Treatment 663
22.5 Residuals Disposal 664
22.6 Selection of Management Plans 666
22.7 Safety and Accident Prevention 670
22.8 Emergency Response Plan 673
22.9 Actions Prior to Developing an ERP 674
22.10 Emergency Response Plan Core Elements 675
22.11 Putting the ERP Together and ERP Activation 677
22.12 Action Plans 678
22.13 Next Steps 681
Problems/Questions 681
References 682
23 Prevention through Design and System Safety 683
23.1 Introduction to System Safety 683
23.2 Nature and Magnitude of Safety and Health Problems 685
23.3 Risk Assessment Matrix 687
23.4 Failure Modes, Effects, and Criticality Analysis 693
23.5 Engineering and Design for Safe Construction 698
23.6 Construction Safety and Health Management 703
23.7 Requirements for Safety in Construction Projects 706
23.8 Occupational Diseases 710
23.9 Ergonomics 714
Problems/Questions 715
References 716
24 Engineering Projects Management 717
24.1 Role of Engineers 717
24.2 Steps in Project Development 717
24.3 The Engineering Report 718
24.4 Feasibility Studies 719
24.5 Alternatives 719
24.6 Plans and Specifications 720
24.7 Sources of Information 720
24.8 Standards 720
24.9 Design Specifications 721
24.10 Project Construction 721
24.11 Project Financing 723
24.12 Methods of Borrowing 725
24.13 Rate Making 725
24.14 Systems Management 726
Problems/Questions 727
References 727
Appendixes 729
Index 797
