Frontiers of Textile Materials
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Mohd Shabbir obtained his PhD in the field of natural dyes application on textiles from Jamia Millia Islamia University, New Delhi, India in 2017. He is currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Chemistry, Sanskriti University, Mathura, India where his main research focus is in natural dyes, nanomaterials for textiles, smart textiles, textiles chemistry and bio-synthesis of functional compounds for textiles.
Shakeel Ahmed is an Assistant Professor in Chemistry at the Higher Education Department, Government of Jammu and Kashmir, India. He obtained his PhD in the area of biopolymers and bionanocomposites from Jamia Millia Islamia in 2016 and has published several research publications in the area of green nanomaterials and biopolymers for various applications including biomedical, packaging, sensors, and water treatment. He has 15 books to his credit by international publishers. His work has been cited more than 2000 times and with h-index of 16.
Javed Sheikh is an Assistant Professor in the Dept. of Textile and Fibre Engineering at the Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, India. His research group is mainly working on the interface of materials science and textile technology which includes functional textiles, sustainable textile chemical processing, natural dyeing and biopolymers for textile processing. He has co-authored more than 50 research papers in highly reputed journals and presented more than 30 research presentations and invited talks in various national and international conferences.
Content
Preface xv
1 Introduction to Textiles and Finishing Materials 1
Mohd Shabbir and Javed N. Sheikh
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Polymers 2
1.3 Nanomaterials 3
1.4 Enzymes 4
1.5 Plasma and Radiations for Textiles 6
1.6 Flexible Electronics 7
References 8
2 Polymers for Textile Production 13
Mohammad Tajul Islam, Md. Mostafizur Rahman and Nur-Us-Shafa Mazumder
2.1 Polymers 13
2.2 History of Polymer 15
2.3 Classification of Polymers 16
2.4 Polymerization 19
2.4.1 Chain Polymerization 19
2.4.2 Step Polymerization 21
2.5 Polymers in Textile Fibers 23
2.5.1 Natural Polymers 24
2.5.1.1 Cellulose 24
2.5.1.2 Cotton 25
2.5.1.3 Jute 26
2.5.1.4 Keratin 26
2.5.1.5 Wool 27
2.5.1.6 Fibroin 28
2.5.1.7 Silk 28
2.5.2 Synthetic Polymers 29
2.5.2.1 Polyethylene 29
2.5.2.2 Polypropylene 33
2.5.2.3 Polytetrafluoroethylene 36
2.5.2.4 Poly Vinyl Chloride 38
2.5.2.5 Poly Vinylidene Chloride 40
2.5.2.6 Polyamide 41
2.5.2.7 Polyethylene Terephthalate 47
2.5.2.8 Polyacrylonitrile 50
2.5.2.9 Modacrylic Fiber 52
2.5.2.10 Spandex Fiber 52
2.6 Polymers in Textile Processing 54
2.6.1 Polyvinyl Alcohol 54
2.6.2 Starch 56
2.6.3 Sodium Alginate 56
2.7 Conclusion 57
References 57
3 Advances in Polymer Coating for Functional Finishing of Textiles 61
Asma Bouasria, Ayoub Nadi, Aicha Boukhriss, Hassan Hannache, Omar Cherkaoui and Said Gmouh
3.1 Introduction 62
3.2 Polymer Coating Methods 63
3.2.1 Dip Coating 63
3.2.2 Transfer Coating 64
3.2.3 Kiss Roll Coating 64
3.2.4 Gravure Roll Coating 64
3.2.5 Slot Die or Extrusion Coating 65
3.2.6 Powder Coating 65
3.2.7 Knife Coating 66
3.2.7.1 Choice of the Thickness 67
3.2.7.2 The Viscosity 67
3.2.7.3 Drying 67
3.2.7.4 Type of Knife 68
3.2.7.5 Knife Use Technologies 69
3.2.7.6 Type of Knife Coating 70
3.3 New Technologies in Polymer Coatings 71
3.3.1 Plasma Treatment Technology 71
3.3.2 Electrofluidodynamic Treatment Technology 72
3.3.3 Supercritical Carbon Dioxide-Based Method Technology 73
3.4 Coating Materials 73
3.4.1 Polyvinylchloride (PVC) 74
3.4.2 Polyacrylics (PA) 74
3.4.3 Polyurethane (PU) 75
3.5 New Functionalities of Polymer Coatings 77
3.5.1 Application in Smart Textile 77
3.5.2 Flame Retardant 77
3.5.3 Water Repellence 79
3.5.4 Antibacterial Function 81
3.6 Conclusions and Future Outlook 82
References 82
4 Functional Finishing of Textiles with ß-Cyclodextrin 87
Aminoddin Haji
4.1 Introduction 87
4.2 Properties of Cyclodextrins 89
4.3 Chemical Modification of Cyclodextrins 91
4.4 Methods for Attachment of ß-CD on Textiles 91
4.5 Functional Properties Obtained by Attachment of ß-CD on Textiles 100
4.5.1 Antimicrobial Activity and Drug Delivery 100
4.5.2 Fragrance Release and Anti-Odor Finishing 101
4.5.3 Improved Dyeing and Printing 105
4.5.4 Wastewater Treatment 105
4.5.5 Flame Retardant Finishing 105
4.6 Conclusion 109
References 109
5 Synthesis of Nanomaterials and Their Applications in Textile Industry 117
Rizwan Arif , Sapana Jadoun and Anurakshee Verma
5.1 Introduction 118
5.2 Synthesis of Nanomaterials 119
5.2.1 Preparation of Chitosan Nano-Fibers 119
5.2.2 Preparation of Polyethylene Glycol Capped Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs) 120
5.2.3 Preparation of Silk Textile Nano-Composite Materials of TiO2 Nanoparticles 122
5.3 Synthesis of Nano-Fiber-Based Hydrogels (NFHGs) 122
5.3.1 Electrospinning 123
5.3.2 Weaving 123
5.3.3 Freeze Drying 124
5.3.4 3D Printing 124
5.4 Application of Nano Textiles 124
5.5 Conclusion 130
References 131
6 Modification of Textiles via Nanomaterials and Their Applications 135
Sapana Jadoun, Anurakshee Verma and Rizwan Arif
6.1 Introduction 136
6.2 Nanotextiles and Its Properties 137
6.3 Modification of Textiles via Nanoparticles 138
6.3.1 Modification via Silver Nanoparticle 139
6.3.2 Modification via Zinc Oxide Nanoparticle 143
6.3.3 Modification via Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticle 144
6.3.4 Modification via Magnesium Oxide (MgO) Nanoparticles 144
6.3.5 Modification via Polymer Nanoparticles 146
6.4 Applications 146
6.5 Conclusion 147
References 148
7 UV Protection via Nanomaterials 153
Kunal Singha, Subhankar Maity and Pintu Pandit
7.1 Introduction 154
7.1.1 Different Types of Nano-Finishing on Textile Materials 154
7.1.1.1 UV Protection 154
7.1.1.2 Nano-Silver (Ag) (Antimicrobial Activity) 155
7.1.1.3 Water Repellence Finishing 155
7.1.1.4 Self-Cleaning or "Lotus Effect" 155
7.1.1.5 New-Age Nano-Finishing on Textile Materials Nano-Care 156
7.2 Zinc Oxide Particle (ZnO) Physical Properties 156
7.2.1 Chemical Properties 156
7.2.2 Nanophase ZnO 157
7.2.3 TiO2 Structure and Properties 157
7.2.3.1 TiO2 Nanoparticle 157
7.3 UV Protective Applications 157
7.3.1 Nanocoating of ZnO-TiO2 on Textile Fabric 158
7.3.2 Polymer Dispersion Methods of Nanocoating 158
7.4 Applications as UV Absorber and Sunscreen 159
7.4.1 Nanomaterials Used in UV Protective Finishing 159
7.5 Nano-ZnO-TiO2 Finishing 161
7.5.1 Mechanism of UV Protection 162
7.5.2 UV Protection Through Nano-Finishing of Textiles 162
7.6 Evaluation of UV Protection Finishes 163
7.7 Conclusions 164
References 165
8 Synthesis, Characterization, and Application of Modified Textile Nanomaterials 167
Anurakshee Verma, Rizwan Arif and Sapana Jadoun
8.1 Introduction of Textile Nanomaterials 167
8.2 Synthesis of Textiles Nanomaterials 168
8.2.1 Synthesis via Hydrothermal Method 169
8.2.2 Synthesis via Solvo-Thermal Method 169
8.2.3 Synthesis via Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) Method 169
8.2.4 Synthesis via Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) Method 170
8.2.5 Synthesis via Template Method 170
8.2.6 Synthesis via Conventional Sol-Gel Method 170
8.2.7 Synthesis via Microwave Method 170
8.2.8 Synthesis via Fabrication Process 170
8.3 Characterization 171
8.3.1 Microscopic Characterization of Textile Nanomaterials 172
8.3.1.1 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) 172
8.3.1.2 Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) 172
8.3.1.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 173
8.3.1.4 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM) 174
8.3.2 Spectroscopic Characterization of Textile Nanomaterials 175
8.3.2.1 Ultraviolet-Visible (UV-VIS) Spectroscopy 175
8.3.2.2 Raman Spectroscopy 175
8.3.2.3 Infrared Spectroscopy (IR) 175
8.3.3 Characterization of Textile Nanomaterials by X-Ray 176
8.3.3.1 Energy Dispersive X-Ray Analysis (EDX) 176
8.3.3.2 Wide Angle X-Ray Diffraction 176
8.3.3.3 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) 176
8.3.3.4 Particle Size Analyzer 177
8.3.4 Characterization of Textile Nanomaterial by Some Other Technique 178
8.3.4.1 Physical Testing 178
8.3.4.2 Determination of Recovery Angle and Tensile Properties 178
8.3.4.3 Determination of Absorbency by Wicking Test and Bending Length 179
8.3.4.4 Evaluation of Water and Air Permeability 179
8.4 Application of Textiles Nanomaterials 179
8.4.1 Application Based on Properties of Textile Material 179
8.4.1.1 Anti-Bacterial Properties of Textile Nanomaterial 179
8.4.1.2 UV Protective Properties of Textile Nanomaterial 180
8.4.1.3 Water Repellence Properties of Textile Nanomaterial 180
8.4.1.4 Anti-Static Properties of Textile Nanomaterial 180
8.4.1.5 Flame Retardant Properties of Textile Nanomaterial 180
8.4.1.6 Wrinkle-Free Properties of Textile Nanomaterial 181
8.4.1.7 Self-Cleaning Properties of Textile Nanomaterial 181
8.4.1.8 Economical and Environmental Aspects of Textile Nanomaterial 181
8.4.2 Application in Textile Industry 182
8.4.2.1 Textile Nanomaterial Used in Swimming Costume 182
8.4.2.2 Textile Nanomaterial Used in Sports Goods 182
8.4.2.3 Textile Nanomaterial Used Inflexible Electronic Circuit 182
8.4.2.4 Textile Nanomaterial Used in Lifestyle 182
8.5 Current Trends and Future Prospects 183
8.6 Conclusion 183
References 184
9 Biomaterials-Based Nanogenerator: Futuristic Solution for Integration Into Smart Textiles 189
S. Wazed Ali, Satyaranjan Bairagi and Pramod Shankar
9.1 Introduction 190
9.2 Biomaterial-Based Piezoelectric Nanogenerator 191
9.2.1 Cellulose-Based 191
9.2.2 Collagen-Based 194
9.2.3 Protein-Based 197
9.3 Conclusion 198
Acknowledgment 199
References 199
10 Textiles in Solar Cell Applications 203
Khursheed Ahmad
10.1 Introduction 203
10.2 Basic Principle and Types of Solar Cells 205
10.3 Textiles in Solar Cells 206
10.3.1 Textiles in Perovskite Solar Cells 206
10.3.2 Textiles in Dye Sensitized Solar Cells 210
10.4 Conclusion 212
References 213
11 Multifunctionalizations of Textile Materials Highlighted by Unconventional Dyeing 219
Vasilica Popescu
11.1 Introduction 220
11.2 Functionalization of Textile Materials: Functionalization Techniques 220
11.3 PAN: Functionalization/Multifunctionalization by Chemical Treatments 223
11.3.1 Dyeing of Functionalized Acrylic Fibers with Different Reagents 229
11.3.2 Functionalization of PAN-M with Basic Reagents 230
11.3.3 Dyeing of PAN-M Functionalized with Basic Reagents 238
11.4 Multi-Functionalization of Acrylic Fiber by Grafting with Polyfunctional Agents 244
11.4.1 Multifunctionalization of PAN Fiber with Chitosan 244
11.4.1.1 Multifunctionalization of PAN-M Fiber with Chitosan by Means of Electrostatical Bonding 245
11.4.1.2 Multifunctionalization PAN-M Fiber with Chitosan via Covalent Bonds 247
11.4.1.3 Multifunction of PAN Fiber with MCT-ß-CD 248
11.5 Polyethylene Terephthalate: Functionalization Ways 249
11.5.1 Functionalization of PET with Basic Reagents 250
11.5.1.1 Dyeing of PET Functionalized with Agents Having Basic Character 253
11.5.2 PET Functionalization with Alcohols 255
11.5.2.1 Multifunctionalized PET Dyeing with Alcohols 257
11.5.3 PET-Multifunctionalization with MCT-ß-CD 260
11.5.4 Functionalization of the PET Surface with Plasma Treatment 261
11.5.4.1 Dyeing of PET Functionalized by Means of Plasma and Grafting with Polyfunctional Compounds 264
11.6 Cotton: Multifunctionalization Ways 266
11.6.1 Surface Activation with Plasma Followed by Grafting with Polyfunctional Compounds 267
11.6.1.1 Dyeing of Multifunctionalized Cotton by Plasma and Grafting Treatments 269
11.6.2 Alkyl Chitosan Grafting on Cotton 269
11.6.2.1 Dyeing of Cotton Grafted with Alkyl Chitosans 273
11.6.3 Multifunctionalization of Cotton with Polyfunctional Compounds and Unconventional Dyeing 275
11.6.3.1 Functionalization of Cotton with Tetronic 701 and Chitosan 275
11.6.3.2 Functionalization of Cotton with a Tetrol (Tetronic 701) and MCT-ß-CD 277
11.6.3.3 Successive Functionalization of Cotton with a Tetrol (Tetronic 701), Chitosan, and MCT-ß-CD 277
11.6.4 Multifunctionalization of Cotton with Carbonyl Compounds and MCT-ß-CD 278
11.7 Conclusions 279
References 280
12 Advanced Dyeing or Functional Finishing 291
Kunal Singha, Subhankar Maity and Pintu Pandit
12.1 Introduction 292
12.2 Mechanism of Dyeing by Phase Separation 293
12.3 Advanced Dyeing and Finishing Techniques 293
12.3.1 Ultrasound Technology 293
12.3.2 Ultraviolet (UV) Technology 294
12.3.3 Ozone Technology 294
12.3.4 Plasma Technology/Ion Implantation Technology 295
12.3.5 Gamma Radiation Technology 295
12.3.6 Laser Technology 296
12.3.7 Microwave Technology 296
12.3.8 E-Beam Radiation Technology/Mass-Analyzed Ion Implantation 296
12.3.9 Supercritical Carbon Dioxide (Sc. CO2) Technology 296
12.4 Applications of Ultrasonics in Textiles 297
12.4.1 Principle of Ultrasound Dyeing Technique 298
12.4.2 Basic Design of the Ultrasound Dyeing Instrument Developed by SASMIRA, India 299
12.4.3 Different Section of the Machine 299
12.4.4 K/S Value 300
12.4.5 Dye Uptake 301
12.4.6 Comparison of Ultrasound Dyeing Technique with the Conventional Dyeing Technique for Various Textile Materials 301
12.4.7 Dyeing of Polyester by Disperse Dye 303
12.5 Conclusions 304
References 305
13 Plasma and Other Irradiation Technologies Application in Textile 309
Kartick K. Samanta, S. Basak and Pintu Pandit
13.1 Introduction 310
13.2 Plasma Treatment of Textile 312
13.3 Optical Properties of Plasma 314
13.4 Improvement in Hydrophobic Attribute 316
13.4.1 Surface Chemistry of Hydrophobic Textile 317
13.5 Improvement in Liquid Absorbency and Coloration 320
13.6 Plasma Treatment of Protein Fiber 322
13.6.1 On Silk Fiber 322
13.6.2 On Wool Fabric 324
13.7 UV Irradiation 325
13.8 Laser Irradiation 326
13.9 Electron Beam Irradiation 327
13.10 Summary 327
References 328
14 Bio-Mordants in Conjunction With Sustainable Radiation Tools for Modification of Dyeing of Natural Fibers 335
Shahid Adeel, Shumaila Kiran, Tanvir Ahmad, Noman Habib, Kinza Tariq and Muhammad Hussaan
14.1 Natural Dyes 336
14.2 Health and Environmental Aspects 336
14.3 Isolation Process 336
14.3.1 Conventional Methods 337
14.3.2 Modern Methods 337
14.4 Role of US and MW in Isolation 337
14.5 Fabric Chemistry 338
14.6 Shade Development Process 338
14.6.1 Chemical Mordant 339
14.6.2 Bio-Mordant 339
14.7 Arjun 340
14.8 Neem 340
14.9 Coconut 340
14.10 Harmal 340
14.11 Recent Advances 341
Acknowledgments 344
References 344
Index 349
1
Introduction to Textiles and Finishing Materials
Mohd Shabbir1* and Javed N. Sheikh2┼
1Department of Chemistry, NIET, Greater Noida, UP, India
2Department of Textile Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi, India
Abstract
Textile is one of the basic needs of the human being, and the modern human being has a lot of choices for their clothing. Textiles have various characteristics depending on the fibers they are made from, such as wool, silk, cotton, viscose, nylon, polyester, etc. and the finishing applied on them via materials such as finishing chemicals, nanoparticles, polymers, enzymes, etc. Thus, so many materials are available which can be utilized in the development of functional and smart textiles. In the era of technology (miniaturization of this world), flexible electronics based on textiles are gaining momentum. The chapter presents the emerging materials in the field of textiles with a major focus on the functionalization of textiles. In the next chapters of this book, all these are reviewed in great detail.
Keywords: Textiles, viscose, polyester, polymers, nanomaterials
1.1 Introduction
The textile industry is of great importance to the economies of every country in terms of trade, employment, investment, and revenue. Simultaneously, the chemical processes associated with textile production generate a lot of waste, greenhouse gases, and consume a large amount of water [1]. Innovative research and developments are very much needed for the textile industry to minimize waste production and maximize clothing production simultaneously. A series of steps are involved from textiles manufacturing to finishing and dyeing, need the attention of textile chemists as well as environmentalists. Technological advancements for functional finishing have emerged in recent years. Textile materials from the natural origin such as cotton, wool, and silk are prone to microbes, so antimicrobial finishing technologies are developed via application of polymers, nanomaterials, and dyes [2, 3].
This chapter overviews the advanced structural and finishing materials for textiles. All textiles fibers are polymers e.g. silk and wool are proteins made up of polymeric chains of amino acids, cotton is made up of glucose monomeric units and synthetic fibers Nylon and polyesters are the synthetic polymers. Chitosan, sericin, and tannins are a few examples of natural polymers used for functional finishing of textiles. Nanomaterials are considered as both present and future of every technological advancement including textiles. Various conventional methods of finishing have been replaced with new and technologically advanced techniques. In the next chapters of this book, all these aspects of the textiles industry are reviewed in great detail.
1.2 Polymers
Textiles and polymers are the interconnected materials and all textiles fibers are polymers. Apart from this, polymers play an important role in textile processing and are utilized for various applications like sizing agents, thickeners for textile printing, finishing chemicals, coating chemicals, etc. As far as applications of polymers in finishing are concerned, they are widely utilized in various finishing treatments ranging from softening finish, stiffening finish, repellent finishes, antimicrobial finishes, flame retardant finishes, and abrasion-resistant finish. The conventional silicones are widely consumed polymers in textile finishing. Silicone softeners show various advantages over other types of softeners and the proper chemistry of silicones can be selected to fine-tune the properties of finished textile materials. Fluorochemicals supported on acrylic backbones are used for imparting water repellent finishing to textile materials. Starch, polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinyl acetates are used for imparting stiffness.
With the development of technical textiles, the demand for functional textiles is increased which resulted in the development of functional finishes for textiles. The properties of polymers were tailor-made by selecting the suitable monomers and such polymers were utilized in the functional finishing of textiles. Textile coating and lamination have opened a new area of modification of textiles which has further enhanced the scope of polymers in textile finishing. The polymers like polyvinylchloride (PVC), polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC), acrylic polymers, silicones, fluoro-polymers, rubbers (both natural and synthetic) find applications in the functional coating of textiles. The resultant film of a coated polymer can also be suitably modified using the various layers of a coating or by addition of fillers. The coating has an added advantage of higher add-on of functional chemical on fabric which can show enhanced functionalities as compared to low add-on involved in the conventional padding-based finishing process.
The increase in awareness regarding health and hygiene and the requirement of protection against pathogenic microbes resulted in development of various polymers, which can act as antimicrobial finishes for textiles. Such polymers include natural polymers like chitosan, sericin and tannins, synthetic polymers like quaternized polymers, polymers with N-halamine moieties, biguanide-based polymers, and conjugated polymers such as polypyrrole and polyaniline.
Chitosan is an interesting functional biopolymer, which is widely researched for its applications in textile finishing. The various reports regarding application of chitosan and its derivatives in antimicrobial finishing, flame retardant finishing, and multifunctional finishing are available in the literature.
Smart textile and apparels are developed in recent times and led to the development of stimuli-sensitive polymers (SSPs), which show a reversible transformation from one state to another as a response to various stimuli from the environment [4]. The stimulus includes temperature, electric field, pH, light, pressure, sound, etc. Shape memory polymer is another important class of polymers, which can be integrated into textile substrates to obtain thermal and moisture control, self-adaptability of shape, shape retention, and smart wettability [5]. Even though smart polymers are available for textile applications, their integration/application in/on textiles is a big challenge. A continuous research in this area is expected to solve the technical issues in the application of such smart materials on textiles.
1.3 Nanomaterials
Nanomaterials are defined as the materials of size in the range 1-100 nm. Nanomaterials are expected to have a higher efficiency than bulk materials owing to their larger surface area-mass ratio. Size and shape are the primary characteristics of nanomaterials responsible for the efficacies of the functional properties imparted by them. Designing of nanomaterials is widely studied under nanotechnology. The way of synthesis or fabrication methods and the reducing or stabilizing agents determine the shape and size of nanomaterials which lead to their specific characteristics [6]. Today nanotechnology plays an important role in almost every aspect of life, having a wide range of applications such as biomedical, environmental, and textiles. The demand for high-quality textiles is highly increased nowadays with the rising population and developed clothing sense of human being, and the textile industry is highly pressurized to manufacture the best quality textiles [7]. Nanoscience and nanotechnology play an important role not only for textile functionalization but also for the remediation of textile effluent to keep water ecosystem clean. Both metal (Ag, Au, Cu, etc.) and metal oxide (ZnO, TiO2, etc.) nanomaterials had been explored toward textile functionalization in recent past. Some of these nanoparticles like silver, gold, zinc oxide, and titanium dioxide are widely studied for imparting antimicrobial, self-cleaning, hydrophobic, and UV protection abilities to textiles [8-10].
Various fabrication and application processes on textile materials have been developed to get optimum benefits from nanoparticles. Eco-friendly fabrication of nanoparticles was also reported via in situ synthesis and simultaneous application on textiles using various plant extracts as reducing and stabilizing agents. Fabrication methods, characterization of nanomaterials, and application on textiles are discussed in detail in the coming chapters of this book.
1.4 Enzymes
Textile chemical processing is water-intensive and generates large quantities of effluent, which necessitates the shifting to more eco-friendly enzymatic processes. Some of the enzymes are commercially exploited, which offers numerous advantages in textile chemical processes. Although some technical issues were witnessed for complete shifting to enzyme-based processes, the ongoing collaborative research in the field of biotechnology and textile processing might answer such issues. The ideologies of Green Chemistry [11] are truly followed by enzyme technology which being sustainable and hence can be a prudent choice.
In the quest of the development of eco-friendly chemicals and processes for chemical processing of textiles, the increased interest has been shown by the research community in the exploration of new products through industrial biotechnology [12-15]. This resulted in the replacement of harsh chemicals and the development of some new alternatives providing a reduction in manufacturing cost and ecological problems. Enzymes are widely utilized in textile chemical processing including...
