Plastics Packaging

Name: Plastics Packaging | Properties, Processing, Applications, and Regulations
Brand: Hanser Publications
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Properties, Processing, Applications, and Regulations

Susan E.M. Selke John D. Culter Rafael A. Auras Muhammad Rabnawaz(Author)

Hanser Publications (Publisher)

4th Edition

Published on 10. May 2021

494 pages

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978-1-56990-823-5 (ISBN)

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Content

Intro
Preface
Content
1 Introduction
1.1 Historic Note
1.2 Role of Plastics in Packaging
1.3 Book Structure
1.4 References
2 Basic Concepts and Definitions
2.1 Terminology
2.1.1 Macromolecule
2.1.2 Polymer
2.1.3 Plastic
2.1.4 Monomer
2.1.5 Constitutional Unit
2.1.6 Homopolymer
2.1.7 Copolymer
2.2 Polymer Nomenclature
2.3 Interatomic and Intermolecular Forces in Polymers
2.3.1 Interatomic Forces
2.3.1.1 Covalent Bonds
2.3.1.2 Ionic Bonds
2.3.2 Intermolecular and Intramolecular Forces
2.3.2.1 Dispersion Forces
2.3.2.2 Induction Forces
2.3.2.3 Dipole Forces
2.3.2.4 Hydrogen Bonds
2.4 Properties Determined by Chemical Composition
2.5 Categorization of Plastics
2.6 References
Study Questions
3 Polymer Structure and Properties
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Molecular Architecture
3.2.1 Linear Polymers
3.2.2 Branched Polymers
3.2.3 Cross-Linked Polymers
3.3 Copolymer Structure
3.3.1 Random Copolymers
3.3.2 Alternating Copolymers
3.3.3 Block Copolymers
3.3.4 Graft Copolymers
3.3.5 Combinations of Copolymer Types
3.4 Chain Polymerization, Addition Polymers
3.4.1 Addition or Chain Polymerization Mechanism
3.4.2 Vinyl Polymers
3.4.3 Free-Radical Polymerization
3.4.3.1 Initiation
3.4.3.2 Propagation
3.4.3.3 Termination
3.4.4 Polyethylene Polymerization Processes
3.4.5 Other Addition Polymerization Mechanisms
3.5 Molecular Configuration and Conformation
3.6 Head-to-Head and Head-to-Tail
3.6.1 Configurations of Vinyl Polymers
3.7 Stereochemistry
3.8 Step Polymerization, Condensation Polymers
3.9 Molecular Weight and Molecular Weight Distribution
3.9.1 Degree of Polymerization
3.9.2 Molecular Mass (Weight) and Molecular Weight Distribution
3.9.3 Number Average Molecular Weight
3.9.4 Weight Average Molecular Weight
3.9.5 Other Molecular Weight Averages
3.9.6 Determination of MWD
3.9.7 Effect of Molecular Weight and Molecular Weight Distribution on Flow and Mechanical Properties
3.10 Polymer Morphology
3.10.1 Crystallinity
3.10.2 Polymer Orientation
3.10.3 Degree of Crystallinity
3.11 Thermal Properties
3.11.1 Melting Temperature
3.11.2 Glass Transition Temperature
3.11.2.1 Measuring Tg
3.11.2.2 Variables Affecting Tg
3.11.3 Other Thermal Transitions
3.11.4 Heat Capacity
3.11.5 Heat of Fusion
3.11.6 Thermal Conductivity
3.11.7 Thermal Expansion Coefficient
3.11.8 Other Dimensional Changes
3.11.9 Dimensional Stability
3.12 Mechanical Properties
3.12.1 Tensile Properties
3.12.2 Tear Strength
3.12.3 Impact and Bursting Strength
3.12.4 Other Mechanical Properties
3.13 Barrier Properties
3.13.1 Diffusion Coefficient
3.13.2 Solubility Coefficient
3.13.3 Permeability Coefficient
3.14 Surfaces and Adhesion
3.14.1 Surface Tension
3.14.2 Wettability
3.14.3 Adhesive Bond Strength
3.14.4 Cohesive Bond Strength
3.14.5 Blocking
3.14.6 Friction
3.14.7 Heat Sealing
3.15 Optical Characteristics
3.15.1 Gloss
3.15.2 Haze
3.15.3 Transparency and Opacity
3.16 Electrical Properties
3.17 Plastics Identification Using IR Spectrophotometry
3.18 References
Study Questions
4 Major Plastics in Packaging
4.1 Branched Polyethylenes
4.1.1 Low Density Polyethylene
4.1.2 Ethylene Vinyl Acetate (EVA)
4.1.3 Ethylene Acrylic Acid (EAA)
4.1.4 Ionomers
4.2 Linear Polyethylenes
4.2.1 High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)
4.2.2 Linear Low Density Polyethylene (LLDPE)
4.2.3 Metallocene Polymers
4.2.4 Property Trends in the Polyethylene Family
4.3 Polypropylene (PP)
4.3.1 PP Homopolymer
4.3.2 Random Copolymer Polypropylene
4.4 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
4.5 Vinylidene Chloride Copolymers (PVDC)
4.6 Polystyrene (PS)
4.7 Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVOH) and Ethylene Vinyl Alcohol (EVOH)
4.7.1 Polyvinyl Alcohol
4.7.2 Ethylene Vinyl Alcohol
4.8 Nylon
4.9 Polyester
4.9.1 Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)
4.9.2 Glycol Modified PET, Other PET Copolymers, and PET Blends
4.9.3 Polyethylene Naphthalate (PEN)
4.10 Polycarbonate (PC)
4.11 Fluoropolymers
4.12 Styrene-Butadiene Copolymers
4.13 Acrylonitrile Copolymers
4.14 Cyclic Olefin Copolymers
4.15 Liquid Crystal Polymers
4.16 Conductive Polymers
4.17 Thermoplastic Elastomers
4.18 Biobased Plastics
4.18.1 Cellophane
4.18.2 Cellulosic Plastics
4.18.3 Starch-Based Plastics
4.18.4 Poly(Lactic Acid) - PLA
4.18.5 Polyhydroxyalkanoates
4.18.6 Biobased Polyolefins
4.18.7 Biobased PET
4.18.8 Other Biobased Plastics
4.19 Thermosets
4.20 Polymer Blends
4.21 Comparison Chart of Major Plastics
4.22 References
Study Questions
5 Additives and Compounding
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Compounding
5.3 Antioxidants
5.4 Heat Stabilizers
5.5 UV Stabilizers
5.6 Additives to Modify Surface Attractions
5.6.1 Antiblocking Agents
5.6.2 Slip Agents
5.6.3 Antislip Agents
5.6.4 Lubricants
5.6.5 Mold Release Agents
5.7 Colorants
5.7.1 Dyes
5.7.2 Organic Pigments
5.7.3 Inorganic Pigments
5.7.4 Specialty Pigments
5.7.5 Colorants and the FDA
5.8 Antifogging Agents
5.9 Nucleating Agents
5.10 Antistatic Agents
5.11 Plasticizers
5.12 Oxygen Scavengers, Desiccants, and Fragrance Enhancers
5.13 Fillers and Reinforcements
5.14 Antimicrobials or Biocides
5.15 Nanoclays and Related Additives
5.16 Other Additives
Study Questions
6 Adhesion, Adhesives, and Heat Sealing
6.1 Adhesion
6.2 Adhesives
6.3 Adhesive and Cohesive Bond Strength
6.3.1 Adhesive Bond Strength
6.3.1.1 Surface Tension
6.3.1.2 Solubility Parameter
6.3.1.3 Viscosity
6.3.1.4 Estimation of Adhesive Bond Strength
6.3.2 Cohesive Bond Strength
6.4 Types of Adhesives
6.4.1 Reactive Adhesives
6.4.2 Hot Melt Adhesives
6.4.3 Solvent-Borne Adhesives
6.4.4 Water-Borne Adhesives
6.4.5 Pressure Sensitive and Remoistenable Adhesives
6.4.6 Cold-Seal Adhesives
6.4.7 UV- and E-Beam Curing
6.5 Application of Adhesives
6.6 Adhesive Terminology
6.7 Adhesive Additives
6.8 Heat Sealing
6.8.1 Sealing Methods
6.8.1.1 Bar or Thermal Sealing
6.8.1.2 Impulse Sealing
6.8.1.3 Band Sealing
6.8.1.4 Hot Wire or Hot Knife Sealing
6.8.1.5 Ultrasonic Sealing
6.8.1.6 Friction Sealing
6.8.1.7 Hot Gas Sealing and Contact Sealing
6.8.1.8 Radiant Sealing
6.8.1.9 Dielectric Sealing
6.8.1.10 Magnetic Sealing
6.8.1.11 Induction Sealing
6.8.1.12 Solvent Sealing
6.8.2 Heat Conduction in Multilayer Flexible Materials
6.8.3 Hot Tack
6.8.4 Heat-Seal Jaws
6.8.5 Heat-Seal Failure Modes
6.8.6 Evaluation of Seals in Flexible Packaging Materials
6.9 References
Study Questions
7 Extrusion, Film and Sheet
7.1 Extrusion and Extruders
7.1.1 Hopper and Feed Port
7.1.2 Feed Section
7.1.3 Compression Section
7.1.4 Metering Section
7.1.5 Mixing Devices
7.1.6 Extruder, Screw Design and Size
7.1.7 Dies
7.1.8 Melt Filters
7.1.9 Drive Mechanisms and Screw Speeds
7.1.10 Special Designs
7.1.11 Extrusion Temperatures
7.1.12 Extrusion Pressures
7.1.13 Specific Mechanical Energy
7.2 Cast Film and Sheet
7.2.1 Cold Cast or Chill Roll Cast Process
7.2.2 Roll Stack and Calendering Processes
7.2.3 Quench Tank or Water Bath Process
7.2.4 Nip Rolls and Winding
7.2.5 Gauge Control
7.2.6 Orientation
7.2.7 Cast Film Dies
7.3 Blown Film
7.3.1 Blown Film Extrusion
7.3.2 Blown Film Dies
7.3.3 Air Rings and Internal Bubble Cooling (IBC)
7.3.4 Collapsing Frames
7.3.5 Nips
7.3.6 Slitting and Winding
7.3.7 Double-Bubble Process
7.4 Stretch and Shrink Wrap
7.4.1 Stretch Wrap
7.4.2 Shrink Wrap
7.5 Film and Sheet Coextrusion
7.6 Surface Treatment
7.7 Yield of Film
7.8 Testing and Evaluation of Films
7.9 References
Study Questions
8 Converting, Lamination and Coating
8.1 Extrusion Coating and Laminating
8.2 Hot Melt Lamination or Coating
8.3 Adhesive Lamination
8.4 Thermal Laminating
8.5 Metallized Film
8.6 Silicon Oxide Films
8.7 Other Inorganic Barrier Coatings
8.8 Building Multilayer Structures
8.9 References
Study Questions
9 Flexible Packaging
9.1 Characteristics of Flexible Packaging
9.2 Pouch Styles
9.2.1 Pillow Pouches
9.2.2 Three-Side Seal Pouches
9.2.3 Four-Side Seal Pouches
9.2.4 Stand-Up Pouches
9.3 Forming Pouches
9.4 Retort Pouches
9.5 Bulk and Heavy-Duty Bags
9.6 Bag-in-Box
9.6 References
Study Questions
10 Thermoforming
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Heating the Sheet
10.2.1 Temperature Selection
10.2.2 Radiative Heating
10.3 Forming the Sheet
10.3.1 Basic Methods
10.3.1.1 Drape Forming
10.3.1.2 Vacuum Forming
10.3.1.3 Pressure Forming
10.3.2 Sheet Deformation
10.3.3 Thermoforming Variations
10.3.3.1 Plug-Assist Thermoforming
10.3.3.2 Solid Phase Pressure Forming
10.3.3.3 Bubble or Billow Forming
10.3.3.4 Vacuum Snap-Back Thermoforming
10.3.3.5 Matched Mold Forming
10.3.3.6 Scrapless Thermoforming
10.3.3.7 In-Line Thermoforming and Melt-to-Mold Thermoforming
10.3.3.8 Twin-Sheet Thermoforming
10.3.3.9 Skin Packaging
10.3.4 Selection of Thermoforming Method
10.4 Trimming the Sheet
10.5 Part and Mold Design
10.5.1 Prototype Molds
10.5.2 Production Molds
10.6 Thermoform-Fill-Seal Systems
10.7 References
Study Questions
11 Injection Molding, Closures, Rotational Molding, Compression Molding, and Tubes
11.1 Injection Molding
11.1.1 Injection Molding Machines
11.1.2 Injection Mold Units
11.1.3 Polymer Flow
11.1.4 Removal of Molded Parts
11.1.5 Hot Runner Molds
11.1.6 Venting
11.1.7 Applications of Injection Molding
11.2 Closures
11.2.1 Friction Closures
11.2.2 Snap-Fit Closures
11.2.3 Threaded Closures
11.2.4 Specialty Closures
11.2.5 Fitments and Overcaps
11.3 Rotational Molding
11.4 Compression Molding
11.5 Plastic Tubes
11.6 References
Study Questions
12 Blow Molding and Bottles
12.1 Blow Molding
12.2 Extrusion Blow Molding
12.2.1 Basic Extrusion Blow Molding Process
12.2.2 Parison Dimensions
12.2.3 Extrusion Blow Molding Variations
12.2.4 Container Designs
12.2.5 Die Shaping
12.2.6 Programmed Parison
12.2.7 Coextruded Bottles
12.3 Injection Blow Molding
12.3.1 IBM Process
12.3.2 Preform Design Process
12.3.3 Comparison of Injection and Extrusion Blow Molding
12.4 Stretch Blow Molding
12.4.1 Plastic Soft Drink Bottles
12.4.2 Overview of Stretch Blow Molding
12.4.3 Manufacture of PET Preforms
12.4.4 Bottle Blowing
12.4.4.1 Preform Heating
12.4.4.2 Blowing the Bottles
12.5 Liquid Flow Molding
12.6 Hot-Fill Bottles
12.7 Coinjection Blow Molded Bottles
12.8 Foam Blow Molding
12.9 Blow Molds
12.10 In-Mold Labeling
12.11 Aseptic Blow Molding
12.12 Surface Treatment
12.12.1 Flame Treatment
12.12.2 Coatings
12.12.3 Fluorination
12.12.4 Sulfonation
12.13 Dimensions and Tolerances for Plastic Bottles
12.14 References
Study Questions
13 Foams, Cushioning, and Distribution Packaging
13.1 Foams
13.1.1 Polystyrene Foam
13.1.1.1 Expanded Polystyrene Foam
13.1.1.2 Extruded Polystyrene Foam
13.1.1.3 Styrene Copolymer Foams
13.1.2 Polyolefin Foams
13.1.3 Polyurethane Foams and Foam-in-Place Systems
13.1.4 Starch-Based Foams
13.2 Nonfoam Plastic Cushioning Systems
13.3 Cushioning
13.4 Thermal Insulation Using Foams
13.5 Plastic Pallets
13.6 Plastic Drums and Other Shipping Containers
13.7 Packaging for Electrostatic Discharge Protection
13.8 References
Study Questions
14 Mass Transfer in Polymeric Packaging Systems: Sorption, Diffusion, Permeation, and Shelf Life
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Physical and Chemical Basis for Interactions
14.3 Types of Interactions
14.3.1 Permeation
14.3.2 Migration
14.3.3 Sorption
14.4 Thermodynamic Equilibrium
14.4.1 Gas Phase Chemical Activity
14.4.2 Solubility
14.4.3 Partition Coefficient
14.5 Diffusion
14.6 Steady State Diffusion Across a Single Sheet: Permeability
14.7 Variables Affecting Permeability
14.7.1 Chemical Structure of the Polymer
14.7.2 Chemical Structure of the Permeant Molecule
14.7.3 Effect of Temperature
14.7.4 Effect of Humidity
14.7.5 Physical Structure of the Polymer
14.7.6 Effect of Permeant Concentration
14.8 Experimental Determination of Permeability
14.9 Multilayer Structures
14.10 Applications of the Permeability Equation
14.11 Shelf Life Estimation
14.12 References
Study Questions
15 U.S. Regulations and Plastic Packaging
15.1 Introduction
15.2 The U.S. Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act
15.3 Medical Packaging Regulations
15.3.1 Drug Packaging
15.3.2 Medical Device Packaging
15.4 Food Packaging Regulations
15.4.1 What is a Food Additive?
15.4.1.1 Example 1: Information on Nylon Available in the CFR
15.4.1.2 Example 2: Identification of Relevant Regulations for Fabrication of an Adhesive-Laminated Plastic Bag
15.4.2 Global, Specific Migration, and Acceptable Amounts of Migration
15.4.3 Threshold of Regulation
15.4.4 Food Processing Equipment and the Housewares Exclusion
15.4.5 Determining the Conditions of Use
15.4.6 Multilayer Food Packages
15.4.7 GRAS and Prior-Sanctioned Additives
15.4.8 Use of Recycled Plastics for Food Packaging
15.4.9 Role of Manufacturers and Users in Determining FDA Compliance
15.5 Cosmetic Packaging Regulations
15.6 State Laws and Regulations
15.6.1 Degradable Beverage Carriers
15.6.2 "Model Toxics" Legislation
15.6.3 Resin Coding on Plastic Bottles
15.6.4 Recycling Rate/Recycled Content Requirements
15.6.4.1 Oregon
15.6.4.2 California
15.6.4.3 Wisconsin
15.7 Potential Future Issues
15.8 References
Study Questions
16 Environmental Issues
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Solid Waste Concerns
16.3 Source Reduction and Reuse
16.4 Recycling of Plastic Packaging
16.4.1 Collection of Packaging Materials for Recycling
16.4.2 Recycling Rates for Plastics Packaging
16.4.3 Processing of Collected Plastics for Mechanical Recycling
16.4.3.1 Size Reduction
16.4.3.2 Cleaning
16.4.3.3 Sorting
16.4.3.4 Extrusion and Pelletizing
16.4.4 Feedstock or Chemical Recycling
16.5 PET Recycling
16.6 HDPE Recycling
16.7 LDPE Recycling
16.8 Recycling of PS, PP, PVC, and Other Plastics
16.9 Recycling of Commingled Plastics
16.10 Biodegradable Plastics
16.11 Other Environmental Concerns
16.11.1 Resource Depletion and Energy Efficiency
16.11.2 Pollution
16.11.3 Climate Change
16.12 Lifecycle Assessment
16.13 References
Study Questions
17 Additional Reading
17.1 Barrier and Mass Transport
17.2 Packaging
17.3 Packaging Plastics
17.4 Plastics
17.5 Polymer Processing
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