
Learning Through Visual Displays
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Content
- Intro
- Learning Through Visual Displays
- A Volume in Current Perspectives on Cognition, Learning, and Instruction
- Series Editors: Gregory Schraw, University of Nevada
- Matthew T. McCrudden, Victoria University of Wellington
- Daniel Robinson, Colorado State University
- CONTENTS
- Section I: Introduction
- 1. Visual Displays and Learning: Theoretical and Practical Considerations
- Section II: Theoretical Frameworks
- 2. Some Instructional Consequences of Logical Relations Between Multiple Sources of Information
- 3. Fostering Learning With Visual Displays
- 4. Knowledge and Working Memory Effects on Learning From Visual Displays
- 5. Toward a Typology of Instructional Visual Displays
- Section III: Using Visual Displays to Enhance Learning
- 6. Static and Dynamic Visual Representations: Individual Differences in Processing
- 7. Static Visual Displays for Deeper Understanding: How to Help Learners Make Use of Them
- 8. Strategies for Note Taking on Computer-Based Graphic Organizers
- 9. Strategy Training With Causal Diagrams to Improve Text Learning
- 10. Cognitive Model of Drawing Construction: Learning Through the Construction of Drawings
- 11. Graphic Organizers as Aids for Students With Learning Disabilities
- 12. Concept Maps for Learning: Theory, Research, and Design
- 13. Argument Diagrams and Learning: Cognitive and Educational Perspectives
- Section iv: Using Visual Displays to Improve Resaerch
- 14. A Typology of Visual Displays in Qualitative Analyses
- 15. Using Visual Displays to Enhance Understanding of Quantitative Research
- 16. Using Visual Displays to Inform Assessment Design and Development
- Current Perspectives on Cognition, Learning, and Instruction
- Learning Through Visual Displays
- edited by
- Gregory Schraw
- University of Nevada
- Matthew T. McCrudden
- Victoria University of Wellington
- and
- Daniel Robinson
- Colorado State University
- Information Age Publishing, Inc.
- Charlotte, North Carolina www.infoagepub.com
- Section I
- Introduction
- CHAPTER 1
- Visual Displays and Learning
- Theoretical and Practical Considerations
- Gregory Schraw, Matthew T. McCrudden, and Daniel H. Robinson
- Abstract
- Goals
- Summary of Chapters
- Section I
- Section II
- Section IV
- Five Information Processing Functions
- Recommendations for Future Research
- References
- CHAPTER 2
- Some Instructional Consequences of Logical Relations Between Multiple Sources of Information
- Renae Low, Putai Jin, and John Sweller
- Abstract
- Introduction
- Cognitive Load Theory
- 1. The information store principle states that long-term memory contains a very large store of information governing most human cognitive activity. The information store holds schemata, the building blocks of knowledge, discussed above. Schemata can ...
- 2. The borrowing and reorganizing principle states that the bulk of information in long-term memory is obtained by borrowing information from other individuals by imitating them (Bandura, 1986), listening to what they say or reading what they write. ...
- 3. The randomness as genesis principle states that although most of the information in long-term memory is borrowed from others, creativity occurs when a learner randomly generates a problem- solving move and tests its effectiveness.
- 4. The narrow limits of change principle states that large-scale, dramatic, random changes are likely to cause traumatic effects on the functionality of long-term memory and thus the limited capacity of working memory ensures small, incremental chang...
- 5. The environmental organizing and linking principle states that whereas the amount of information from sensory memory that can be processed by working memory is limited, the amount of information from long-term memory organized as schemata that can...
- Some Logical Relations Between Multiple Sources of Information
- The Split-Attention Effect
- The Redundancy Effect
- The Modality Effect
- The Transient Information Effect
- Conclusions
- References
- Figure 2. 1. A conventional, split-attention geometry example.
- Figure 2. 2. A conventional, redundant biology example.
- Figure 2. 3. A physically integrated geometry example.
- section ii
- Theoretical Frameworks
- CHAPTER 3
- Fostering Learning With Visual Displays
- Richard E. Mayer
- Abstract
- Introduction to Visual Displays in Education
- The Case for Visual Displays in Education
- How People Learn with Visual Displays
- How Instructional Design Principles Can Improve Learning with Visual Displays
- Future Directions for Research on Visual Displays that Support Student Learning
- Acknowledgments
- Note
- References
- Figure 3. 1. What's wrong with this visual display about the water cycle?
- Figure 3. 2. Applying the coherence principle to a visual display about the water cycle
- Figure 3. 3. Applying the spatial contiguity principle to a visual display about the water cycle
- Figure 3. 4. Applying the signaling principle to a visual display about the water cycle
- Figure 3. 5. Applying the pretraining principle to a visual display about the water cycle.
- Figure 3. 9. An annotated visual display about how bicycle tire pumps work.
- Figure 3. 6. Applying the segmenting principle to a visual display about the water cycle.
- Figure 3. 7. Applying the modality principle to a visual display about the water cycle.
- Figure 3. 8. Applying the personalization principle to a visual display about the water cycle.
- Figure 3. 10. A cognitive theory of learning from words and visuals.
- Table 3.1. Three Demands on Cognitive Resources During Learning
- Table 3.3. Three Principles for Managing Essential Processing
- Table 3.2. Three Principles for Reducing Extraneous Processing
- Table 3.3. Three Principles for Fostering Generative Processing
- CHAPTER 4
- Knowledge and Working Memory Effects on Learning From Visual Displays
- Slava Kalyuga
- Abstract
- Cognitive Architecture and Human Learning
- Expertise Reversal Effect
- Reducing Cognitive Load in Visual Displays
- Visual Displays With Onscreen or Narrated Text
- Pictorial Representations in Language Instruction
- Reducing Visual Cognitive Load in Interactive Dynamic Visualizations
- Simulations
- Animations
- Web-Based Representations
- Spreadsheets
- Tailoring Visual Displays to Levels of Learner Expertise
- Conclusion
- References
- Figure 4. 1. Single-modality format presented to novice learners.
- Figure 4. 2. Single-modality format presented to more experienced learners.
- Figure 4. 3. Visual display with iconic information representations in a gas laws simulation.
- CHAPTER 5
- Toward a Typology of Instructional Visual Displays
- Gregory Schraw and Eugene Paik
- Abstract
- Introduction
- Eight Types of Instructional Visual Displays
- Signals
- Notes and Tabular Comparisons
- 1. Definition of note-taking
- 2. Encoding and retrieval functions
- 3. Summary of recent reviews
- (a) Joint effect of encoding and retrieval study on learning
- (b) Effect of instructor's notes
- Networks
- Sequences
- Hierarchies
- Distributions and Trend Graphs
- Maps and Spatial Proximity Diagrams
- Animations
- Summary
- Six Issues for Future Theory and Research
- Conclusions
- References
- Figure 5. 1. Eight types of IVDs (and within-category examples).
- Figure 5. 2. A network diagram of the three branches of the United States federal government
- Table 5.1. A Summary of the Definition, Purpose and Examples of Different Types of IVDs
- Figure 5. 3 Partial classification of knowledge in long-term memory.
- section iii
- Using Visual Displays to Enhance Learning
- CHAPTER 6
- Static and Dynamic Visual Representations
- Individual Differences in Processing
- Tim N. Höffler, Annett Schmeck, and Maria Opfermann
- Abstract
- Introduction
- WHY LEARNING (OFTEN) WORKS BETTER WHEN VISUAL REPRESENTATIONS ARE ADDED to TEXT
- TYPES of VISUAL REPRESENTATIONS THAT CAN BE USED to SUPPORT MEANINGFUL LEARNING
- Different Ways to Distinguish Instructional Visual Representations
- Static and Dynamic Visual Representations
- What Can Be Understood as Static or Dynamic?
- Are Animations Always Better?
- Instructional Design of Animations: Where is the Impact?
- Individual Differences: Who Benefits From What?
- The Role of Cognitive Style for Learning With Animations
- The Role of Spatial Ability for Learning With Animations
- Conclusions: Can We Give Recommendations for the Design of Visual Representations?
- Acknowledgments
- References
- Figure 6. 3. A series of consecutive static pictures depicting the correct sequence of motions for high jumping. In this case, all 14 pictures have been merged into one picture.
- Figure 6. 1. A static picture explaining the Pythagorean theorem.
- Figure 6. 2. Exemplary states of the mitosis process.
- Figure 6. 4. Mirror neurons are activated when observing motions made by others. Similar brain areas are activated when actions are observed or actually executed.
- Figure 6. 5. Highly realistic and schematic pictures illustrating high jumping.
- Figure 6. 6. Series of simultaneously shown static pictures depicting motions of fish used in the study of Imhof et al. (2011).
- Figure 6. 8. Screenshot used in the static version of Höffler et al.'s (2010) study.
- Figure 6. 7. Screenshot of the learning environment used in Plass et al's (1998) study.
- Table 6.1. Brief Summary of Main Research Findings Concerning Interplay of Learning Characteristics and Type of Visual Representation
- CHAPTER 7
- Static Visual Displays for Deeper Understanding
- How to Help Learners Make Use of Them
- Alexander Renkl and Rolf Schwonke
- Abstract
- Static Visual Displays for Deeper Understanding
- Visual Displays: Potential and Pitfalls
- Typical Support Procedures
- Supporting Learning on Superficial and Structural Levels
- Direct Approach
- Indirect Approach
- Comparison to Related Instructional Approaches
- Conclusions
- 1. Include the structural level when supporting learners' use of visual displays. Typical instructional procedures for supporting learners in the use of visual displays (e.g., integrated format, color coding) do not directly address the structural ...
- 2. Provide special assistance for learners' considerations on the structural level. For most learners, it is rather demanding to go beyond the surface level to the structural level in order to deepen their understanding. It is therefore sensible to...
- 3. Use informed instruction instead of "Easter-egg pedagogy." In many classrooms and learning environments, a type of "Easter-egg pedagogy" is employed: the learners are not informed what they should learn and what they are expected to do in ...
- References
- Figure 7. 1. Screenshot from a learning environment with worked examples from the domain of probability.
- Figure 7. 2. Screenshot of the instruction for the "informed" group (Schwonke et al., 2009) with information on the functions of the visual display (translated from German).
- Figure 7. 3. Screenshot of the instruction for the control group (Schwonke et al., 2009) with no information on the functions of the visual display (translated from German).
- CHAPTER 8
- Strategies for Note Taking on Computer-Based Graphic Organizers
- Steven M. Crooks and Jongpil Cheon
- Abstract
- Review of Research on Note Taking
- The Process and Product Functions of Note Taking
- Combining Graphic Organizers, Note Taking, and Computers
- Paper-Based GO Note Taking
- CGO Note Taking
- Addressing the Passivity Hypothesis in CGO Note Taking
- Disabling the Copy-Paste Feature
- Restricting the Copy-Paste Feature
- Expediting the Copy-Paste Feature
- Addressing the Cognitive Demands of CGO Note Taking
- Partial CGO Note Taking
- Self-Regulation Prompts in CGO Note Taking
- Summary
- Theoretical Implications
- Instructional Implications
- Notes
- References
- Figure 8. 1. An example of a CGO.
- Figure 8. 3. An example of a partial CGO note-taking framework.
- Figure 8. 2. An example of a computer notepad.
- CHAPTER 9
- Strategy Training with Causal Diagrams to Improve Text Learning
- Anne Poliquin and Gregory Schraw
- Abstract
- Causality and Causal Entailments
- 1. The cause and effect must be contiguous in space and time.
- 2. The cause must be prior to the effect.
- 3. There must be a constant relationship between the cause and effect.
- Understanding Causal Diagrams
- Previous Research
- The Present Study
- Methods
- Participants
- Materials
- Procedure
- Scoring
- Results
- Recall
- Drawings
- Essay
- Short Answers
- Discussion
- Future Research
- Summary and Conclusions
- Appendix A
- Improving Science Education
- Direct and Indirect Effects
- Direct Effects on Science Achievement
- Other Direct Effects
- Indirect Effects on Science Achievement
- Ways to Improve Science Education
- A Brighter Future
- Appendix B
- Scoring Rubric for Participant-Generated Diagrams
- References
- Figure 9. 1. Causal diagram of factors that affect overall fitness.
- Table 9.1. Means and Standard Deviations for All Outcome Measures
- CHAPTER 10
- Cognitive Model of Drawing Construction
- Learning Through the Construction of Drawings
- Peggy Van Meter and Carla M. Firetto
- Abstract
- Overview of Theoretical Models
- Generative Theory of Drawing Construction
- Self-Regulation and Learning
- Integrated Text and Picture Comprehension and Learning
- Cognitive Model of Drawing Construction
- Self-Regulation and Drawing Construction as Viewed Through the CMDC
- The ITPC and Drawing Construction as Viewed Through the CMDC
- Review of the Research
- Improving the Effectiveness of Drawing Through Support Functions
- Measuring Drawing Through Well-Matched Posttests
- Future Directions and Concluding Remarks
- Note
- References
- Figure 10. 1. Van Meter's drawing of the human kidney. This figure shows the drawing that resulted from Van Meter's attempt to comprehend a complex text on the anatomy of the human kidney
- it provides a concrete example of both the process and th...
- Figure 10. 2. A graphic represenation of the cognitive model of drawing construction (CMDC). The rectangular dashed box at the bottom indicates the representations present in the external world, the square black boxes indicate internal knowledge repr...
- CHAPTER 11
- Graphic Organizers as Aids for Students With Learning Disabilities
- Douglas D. Dexter and Charles A. Hughes
- Abstract
- What are Graphic Organizers?
- Theoretical Framework
- Why GOs May Benefit Learners
- Best Design for GOs
- 1. GOs are computationally efficient when they minimize the processing required for their interpretation. GOs are most efficient when their interpretation relies more on visual perception because visual perception is carried out automatically without...
- 2. When material is presented in multiple sources (e.g., text and GOs) cognitive processing is demanding because learners must simultaneously attend to each source and integrate their information. As a result of limitations of the working memory, thi...
- 3. When geographic or concept maps are used as reference materials to facilitate learning from text or lecture, their effectiveness is maximized when they are provided before or concurrently with the text or lecture (Vekiri, 2002), other types of GOs...
- Research on Graphic Organizers With Students With LD
- Conclusion
- (a) GOs should be explicitly taught to students for maximum impact. Students with LD need explicit instruction to understand how concepts are related, to recognize differences between main and subordinate ideas, and to put all the pieces together to ...
- (b) GOs should spatially group together or connect concepts so readers are more likely to perceive them as being interrelated and to draw perceptual inferences about their relationships. This will help students decrease further cognitive computations...
- (c) GOs should not be clustered with a lot of information
- readers should easily perceive the phenomena or relations that are important. This is also known as "cutting the fluff." Eliminating nonessential information will help students focus on t...
- (d) GOs can be effective when used before, during, or after a lesson. Using a GO prior to a lesson can help orient the students to the material to be learned and cue up prior knowledge or experience. GOs can also be useful for note-taking during a le...
- References
- Figure 11. 1. Example of Subsumption
- Table 11.1 Comparison of Visual Argument and Dual-Coding
- 1. Relationships among objects/concepts are apparent by their location in two- dimensional space.
- 2. Verbal and visual information presented at the same time bolsters encoding.
- Figure 11. 3. Completed semantic map.
- Figure 11. 2 Visual argument
- Figure 11. 4. Visual display.
- CHAPTER 12
- Concept Maps for Learning
- Theory, Research, and Design
- John C. Nesbit and Olusola O. Adesope
- Abstract
- Historical Antecedents
- Overview of Research and Theory
- How Effective are Concept Maps as Tools for Learning?
- Seven Possible Reasons for the Effectiveness of Concept Maps
- Learning by Constructing Concept Maps
- Prewriting
- Collaborative Mapping
- Learning by Studying Concept Maps
- What Eye Movement Data Can Tell Us
- Concept Maps as Interactive Multimedia
- Animation and Audio Narration
- Hypermaps
- Concept Mapping for Assessment
- Self-Monitoring Writing
- Implications for Designers, Teachers and Students
- Research Priorities
- The Future of Concept Maps
- Note
- References
- Figure 12. 1. A concept map constructed by a student using CmapTools (software developed by the Institute of Human and Machine Cognition, 2011).
- Figure 12. 3. Number of academic articles on concept maps and knowledge maps from 1980 to 2011 indexed by three bibliographic databases.
- Figure 12. 2. The fixed vocabulary of relationship symbols used in knowledge maps.
- CHAPTER 13
- Argument Diagrams and Learning
- Cognitive and Educational Perspectives
- Jerry Andriessen and Michael Baker
- Abstract
- Introduction
- Defining Argument Diagrams
- Argumentation and Argument Diagrams
- Six Assumptions About Argumentation
- Goals of This Chapter
- Some Issues Concerning the Collaborative Use of Argument Diagrams
- An Extended Example
- The Role of Learning Goals
- A Conceptual Framework Based on Four Learning Objectives
- (1) Knowledge of a Domain: Acquisition of Individual Knowledge and Understanding in a Learning Domain
- (2) Knowledge of Collaboration: Groups Improving Collaboration by Participating in Joint Activity
- (3) Knowledge Management: Sharing and Using Each Other's Knowledge in a Network
- (4) Knowledge Creation: Construction and Application of Innovative Designs, Solutions, and Other Artifacts by Group Activity
- Discussion
- References
- Figure 13. 1. JigaDREW interface.
- Figure 13. 2. Principal categories of the Rainbow functional analysis of computer-mediated pedagogical debates.
- CHAPTER 14
- A Typology of Visual Displays in Qualitative Analyses
- Lori Olafson, Florian Feucht, and Gwen Marchand
- Abstract
- Qualitative Analysis
- A Typology of Visual Displays in Qualitative Research
- Functions of Visual Displays in Qualitative Research
- Visual Displays for Process
- Visual Displays for Products
- Computer Aided Qualitative Data Analysis Software
- Visual Displays for Process
- Visual Displays for Product
- Examples of Visual Displays in Qualitative Research
- Level 1: Text
- Level 2: Table
- Level 3: Graphic
- Conclusion
- References
- Section iv
- Using Visual Displays to Improve Resaerch
- Table 14.1. Functions of Qualitative Analysis
- Figure 14. 3. Topological network view.
- Table 14.2. Types of Visual Display by Function
- Figure 14. 1. Data collection, sources, and triangulation.
- Figure 14. 2. Mrs. M's epistemic beliefs, instruction, and knowledge representations about drawing conclusions.
- Figure 14. 4. A coded transcript in ATLAS.ti (Text: Process).
- Table 14.3. Typology of Visual Displays in Qualitative Research
- Figure 14. 5. Segment of a coding scheme in ATLAS.ti (Table: Process).
- Table 14.4. Codes-Primary-Documents-Table (Table: Process)
- Table 15.5. Code hierarchy, Code Occurrence Across Participants, and Example Quotations (Table: Product)
- Figure 14. 6. Theme: Internal sources of knowledge (Graphic: Process and Product).
- Table 14.6. Overview of Common Analytic and Interpretive Processes
- Table 14.6. (Continued)
- CHAPTER 15
- Using Visual Displays to Enhance Understanding of Quantitative Research
- Dena A. Pastor and Sara J. Finney
- Abstract
- The Use of Visual Displays to Enhance Cognitive Processing
- The Need for Visual Displays in Quantitative Research
- Visually Depicting Interactions Between Continuous Predictors in Multiple Regression
- Visually Depicting Profiles in Latent Profile Analysis
- Visually Depicting Growth in Latent Growth Modeling
- Conclusions
- Notes
- References
- Table 15.3. Estimated Parameters for the 5-Class LPA Model
- Table 15.1. Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations for Age, Need for Cognition, and Time on Task
- Table 15.2. Regression Analysis Predicting Time From Age, Need for Cognition, and Their Interaction
- Figure 15. 1. Regression of Time on Age at three levels of need for cognition.
- Table 15.4. OLS Regression Parameter Estimates for the Linear and Quadratic Models
- Figure 15. 2. Estimated means and class percentages for the 5-class LPA model.
- Figure 15. 3. Change in opposites-naming scores over time for a random sample of eight individuals.
- Figure 15. 5. Model-implied trajectories of change in opposites-naming scores over time: Unconditional LGM.
- Figure 15. 4. Observed trajectories of change in opposites-naming scores over time.
- Table 15.5. Results for Unconditional and Conditional Growth Models: Opposites-Naming Scores Over Time
- Figure 15. 6. Scatterplot and marginal distributions of empirical Bayes estimates of intercepts and slopes: Opposites-naming example.
- Table 15.6. Results for the Unconditional Growth Model: CES-D Scores Over Time
- Figure 15. 7. Scatterplot and marginal distributions of empirical Bayes estimates of intercepts and slopes: CES-D example.
- Figure 15. 8. Model-implied trajectories of change in opposites-naming scores over time at three levels of cognitive skills: Conditional LGM model.
- Figure 16. 3. Excerpt from a sample score report.
- CHAPTER 16
- Using Visual Displays to Inform Assessment Design and Development
- Brett P. Foley and Chad W. Buckendahl
- Abstract
- Design Program
- Design Test
- Analyze Domain/Develop Blueprint
- Develop Content
- Review Content
- Pretest and Analyze
- Assemble Operational Test
- Conduct Standard Setting
- Maintain Test
- Conclusions
- 1. explore the expanded use of visual displays throughout the test development and validation process to reduce the cognitive burden for SMEs and increase interpretability for consumers of test results,
- 2. evaluate the effectiveness of different data visualizations in various testing contexts, and
- 3. disseminate the results of such inquiries to the broader testing community.
- Note
- References
- Figure 16. 1. Flow chart illustrating the steps in validity-centered assessment development.
- Figure 16. 2. Summarizing two purposes within a validity framework.
- Figure 16. 5. Cluster diagrams for representing the content domain of Grade 12 economics.
- Figure 16. 4. Diagram illustrating an equating design with linking sets of items.
- Table 16.1. Example Three-Dimensional Test Blueprint (Objective, Cognitive Complexity, and Item Type)
- Figure 16. 6. Conditional formatting for illustrating real-time item development progress.
- Figure 16. 11. Example of using test information functions to evaluate form comparability.
- Figure 16. 7. Venn diagrams use for alignment study training to illustrate degrees of relationship between the content of a test item and the content of an objective.
- Figure 16. 8. Example of graphic inclusion review as part of the item review process.
- Figure 16. 9. Example of conditional formatting and spreadsheet-embedded sparklines for evaluation of item level pretest data.
- Figure 16. 10. Example of using item characteristic curves to show the effect of differential item functioning.
- Figure 16. 13. Example of a line graph with confidence intervals for vertical articulation in standard setting.
- Figure 16. 12. Example of stacked dot plots for standard setting panelist feedback.
- Figure 16. 14. Example of a scatter plot showing passing rates over time.
- Figure 16. 15. Example of a scatter plot comparing test score for different test- taking times.
- Figure 16. 16. Example state-level score report.
- About the Authors
- Editor Bios
- Author Bios
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