A Guide to Polymeric Geomembranes
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Series Preface xvii
Preface xix
About the Author xxi
Acknowledgments xxiii
1 Introduction to Polymeric Geomembranes 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Viscoelastic Behaviour 2
1.3 Polymer Structure 4
1.4 Molecular Weight 5
1.5 Molecular Weight Distribution 7
1.6 Crystallinity 8
1.7 Properties of Polyethylenes 14
1.8 Stress-Strain Behaviour of Polymers 16
1.9 Melting Points 20
References 20
2 Geomembrane Manufacturing Methods 21
2.1 Blown Film (Round Die) 22
2.2 Flat Sheet Extrusion (Flat Die) 23
2.3 Coextrusion 25
2.4 Calendering 28
2.5 Spread Coating 29
2.6 Extrusion Coated Geomembranes 30
2.7 Pin-Hole Detection 30
2.8 Texturing 30
2.9 Additives for Geomembranes 40
References 51
3 HDPE Geomembranes 53
3.1 Introduction 53
3.2 Structure-Property Relationships 59
3.3 Comparison of HDPE Geomembranes with Other Geomembranes 60
3.4 Durability and Survivability of HDPE 60
3.5 Selection of Quality HDPE Geomembranes 63
3.6 Common Failure Modes of HDPE Geomembranes 75
3.7 Multilayer HDPE Geomembranes 77
3.8 Fluorinated HDPE (F-HDPE) 82
References 88
4 Linear Low-Density Polyethylene Geomembranes 91
4.1 Introduction 91
4.2 Attributes of LLDPE Geomembranes 92
4.3 Limitations of LLDPE Geomembranes 92
4.4 Mechanical Properties 92
4.5 LLDPE Geomembrane Resins 94
4.6 Speciality Flexible Polyethylene Geomembranes 95
4.7 Very Low-Density Polyethylene (VLDPE) Geomembranes 100
References 100
5 Flexible Polypropylene (fPP) Geomembranes 101
5.1 Introduction 101
5.2 Attributes of fPP Geomembranes 102
5.3 Shortcomings of fPP Geomembranes 102
5.4 Performance Propeties of fPP Geomembranes 104
5.5 Applications 112
5.6 fPP Field Failures 112
References 115
6 CSPE Geomembranes 117
6.1 Introduction 117
6.2 Grades of Hypalon?J?n117
6.3 Attributes of CSPE Geomembranes 118
6.4 Limitations of CSPE Geomembranes 119
6.5 General Properties of CSPE Geomembranes 120
6.6 Comparisons of CSPE with Other Geomembranes 125
6.7 Applications of CSPE Geomembranes 125
6.8 Chemical Resistance of CSPE Geomembranes 125
References 126
7 PVC Geomembranes 127
7.1 Introduction 127
7.2 Attributes of PVC Geomembranes 130
7.3 Shortcomings of PVC 132
7.4 Properties of PVC Geomembranes 133
7.5 Failure Modes 134
7.6 Formulation of PVC Geomembranes 136
References 138
8 EIA Geomembranes 139
8.1 Introduction 139
8.2 Attributes of EIA-R Geomembranes 141
8.3 Limitations of EIA-R Geomembranes 142
8.4 Performance Properties of EIA-R Geomembranes 142
8.5 Comparison of EIA-R (XR-5?_) Versus CSPE-R (Hypalon¿) Geomembranes 147
8.6 Application Areas for EIA-R Geomembranes 147
References 148
9 EPDM Geomembranes 149
9.1 Introduction 149
9.2 Attributes of EPDM Geomembranes 149
9.3 Structure and Chemistry 151
9.4 Mechanical Properties 152
9.5 Advantages of EPDM over HDPE Geomembranes (Property Comparison) 153
9.6 Comparison between EPDM and PVC Geomembranes 158
9.7 Seaming EPDM Geomembranes 160
9.8 Applications 161
9.9 Service Life 161
References 162
10 Bituminous Geomembranes (BGMs) 163
10.1 Introduction 163
10.2 Prefabricated Bitumen Membranes 163
10.3 Composition and Construction 164
10.4 Longevity of Bituminous Geomembranes 165
10.5 Spray-in-Place Bitumen Membranes166
10.6 Design Life of Bituminous Geomembranes 167
References 167
11 Specialty Geomembranes and Liners 169
11.1 EVA Liners/Geomembranes 169
11.2 Butyl Rubber Liners 170
11.3 Nitrile Rubber Geomembranes 172
11.4 Chlorinated Polyethylene (CPE) 175
11.5 Polyurethane (PU) Geomembranes 176
11.6 Acrylic-Coated Geomembranes/Geotextile Composites 178
11.7 PVDF Liners 180
11.8 Chemical Vapour Barrier Membranes 182
References 187
12 Key Performance Properties of Geomembranes 189
12.1 Specific Gravity (Density) 189
12.2 Mass per Unit Area 191
12.3 Thickness 192
12.4 Melting Point 196
12.5 Melt Flow Index 198
12.6 Thermal Expansion 199
12.7 Flexibility 203
12.8 Conformability for Intimate Contact 204
12.9 Ability to Resist/Accept Stress and Deformation 204
12.10 Tensile Properties 206
12.11 Puncture Resistance 213
12.12 Tear Resistance 217
12.13 Ply Adhesion of Reinforced Geomembranes 219
12.14 Resistance to Stress Cracking 220
12.15 Frictional Properties 226
12.16 Low-Temperature Properties 232
12.17 High-Temperature Capabilities 236
12.18 Oxidative Resistance 236
12.19 UV Resistance 240
12.20 Permeability of Geomembranes 241
12.21 Durability 245
12.22 Application Specific Performance Properties 249
12.23 Comparison of Performance Properties of Flexible Geomembranes 251
References 251
13 Testing of Geomembranes 255
13.1 Material Property Testing 255
13.2 Measuring Thickness 256
13.3 Density 258
13.4 Mass per Unit Area 259
13.5 Tensile Testing Methods 259
13.6 Tear Testing 266
13.7 Ply Adhesion 268
13.8 Puncture Resistance 269
13.9 Impact Resistance 275
13.10 Environmental Stress Cracking 276
13.11 Dimensional Stability 283
13.12 Friction Angles 284
13.13 Melt Flow Index (MFI) 284
13.14 Durability Testing 286
13.15 Tests for Additives 294
13.16 Carbonyl Index Measurements 303
13.17 Chemical Resistance Testing 305
References 309
14 Chemical Resistance of Geomembranes 313
14.1 Chemical Resistance Tables 314
14.2 Factors Affecting Chemical Resistance 315
14.3 Effects of Chemicals on Geomembranes 322
14.4 Chemical Resistance Testing 322
14.5 Geomembrane Chemical Resistance by Chemical Class 329
14.6 Geomembrane Chemical Resistance by Polymer Type 335
14.7 Environmental Stress Cracking 339
References 341
15 Failure Modes of Geomembranes 343
15.1 Potential for Geomembrane Damage 343
15.2 Failure of Installed Geomembranes 344
References 368
16 Application Areas for Geomembranes 371
16.1 Landfill Liners 371
16.1.1 Design Aspects 373
16.2 Landfill Caps/Covers 374
16.3 Mining Applications 378
16.4 Floating Covers 386
16.5 Tank Liners 394
References 399
17 Welding of Geomembranes 401
17.1 Wedge Welding 401
17.2 Hot Air Fusion Welding 413
17.3 Extrusion Welding 415
17.4 General Overview of Thermal Welding Methods 424
17.5 Potential Thermal Welding Problems 425
17.6 Defects that can Affect Weld Integrity 429
17.7 Trial Welds and Field Welds 437
17.8 Chemical Welding of Geomembranes 440
17.9 General Welding Instructions for HDPE/LLDPE/fPP Geomembranes 442
17.10 General Welding Instructions for PVC Geomembranes 445
References 447
18 Geomembrane Weld Testing Methods 449
18.1 Introduction to Weld Testing 449
18.2 Visual Inspection of Welds 450
18.3 Nondestructive Seam Tests 453
18.4 Destructive Weld Tests 465
18.5 Forensic Weld Examination 484
18.6 Leak Location Testing 485
References 489
19 Geomembrane Installation Factors 491
19.1 Introduction 491
19.2 Design Considerations 493
19.3 Installation and Damage Considerations 496
References 531
Appendix 1 Glossary 533
References 546
Appendix 2 Geomembrane Test Methods 547
American Society for Testing and Materials 547
Geomembrane (GM) Related Test Methods and Standards from GRI 549
Geomembrane Testing Methods Conversion Table ASTM and ISO 551
Index 553
