Electric Distribution Systems
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Content
Preface xi
Acknowledgments xiii
Part I Fundamental Concepts
Chapter 1 Introduction 3
1.1 Introduction and Background 3
1.2 Power System Structure 3
1.3 Distribution Level 5
1.4 General 7
Chapter 2 Distribution System Structure 9
2.1 Distribution Voltage Levels 9
2.2 Distribution System Configuration 9
2.3 General Comments 22
Chapter 3 Distribution System Planning 23
3.1 Duties of Distribution System Planners 23
3.2 Factors Affecting the Planning Process 25
3.3 Planning Objectives 31
3.4 Solutions for Meeting Load Forecasts 37
Chapter 4 Load Forecasting 41
4.1 Introduction 41
4.2 Important Factors for Forecasts 42
4.3 Forecasting Methodology 43
4.4 Spatial Load Forecasting (SLF) 56
4.5 End-Use Modeling 64
4.6 Spatial Load Forecast Methods 65
Part II Protection And Switchgear
Chapter 5 Earthing Of Electric Distribution Systems 75
5.1 Basic Objectives 75
5.2 Earthing Electrical Equipment 76
5.3 System Earthing 93
5.4 MV Earthing Systems 99
5.5 Earthing Systems in LV Distribution Networks 104
Chapter 6 Short-Circuit Studies 111
6.1 Introduction 111
6.2 Short-Circuit Analysis 113
Chapter 7 Protection: Current-Based Schemes 163
7.1 Introduction 163
7.2 Types of Relay Construction 166
7.3 Overcurrent Protection 171
7.4 Directional Protection 187
7.5 Differential Protection 193
Chapter 8 Protection: Other Schemes 207
8.1 Overvoltage Protection 207
8.2 Thermal Protection 220
8.3 Reclosers, Sectionalizers, Fuses 223
Chapter 9 Switchgear Devices 235
9.1 Need for Switchgear 235
9.2 MV Switchgear Devices 237
9.3 LV Switchgear Devices 244
9.4 Protection Classes 250
9.5 Specifications and Implementation of Earthing 251
9.6 Assessment of Switchgear 253
9.7 Safety and Security of Installations 255
9.8 Application Trends in MV Switchgear 256
Chapter 10 Switchgear Installation 261
10.1 Steps for Installing Switchgear 261
10.2 Switchgear Layout 262
10.3 Dimensioning of Switchgear Installations 264
10.4 Civil Construction Requirements 275
10.5 ARC-Flash Hazards 282
Part III Power Quality
Chapter 11 Electric Power Quality 297
11.1 Overview 297
11.2 Power Quality Problems 298
11.3 Cost of Power Quality 304
11.4 Solutions of Power Quality Problems 310
11.5 Solution Cycle for Power Quality Problems 317
Chapter 12 Voltage Variations 321
12.1 Voltage Quality 321
12.2 Methods of Voltage Drop Reduction 329
12.3 Voltage Sag Calculations 345
12.4 Estimation of Distribution Losses 356
Chapter 13 Power Factor Improvement 361
13.1 Background 361
13.2 Shunt Compensation 365
13.3 Need for Shunt Compensation 366
13.4 An Example 368
13.5 How to Determine Compensation 370
Chapter 14 Harmonics in Electric Distribution Systems 379
14.1 What Are Harmonics? 379
14.2 Sources of Harmonics 384
14.3 Disturbances Caused by Harmonics 391
14.4 Principles of Harmonic Distortion Indications and Measurement 396
14.5 Frequency Spectrum and Harmonic Content 398
14.6 Standards and Recommendations 400
Chapter 15 Harmonics Effect Mitigation 403
15.1 Introduction 403
15.2 First Class of Solutions 403
15.3 Second Class of Solutions 404
15.4 Third Class of Solutions 406
15.5 Selection Criteria 409
15.6 Case Studies 409
Part IV Management And Automation
Chapter 16 Demand-Side Management And Energy Efficiency 431
16.1 Overview 431
16.2 DSM 432
16.3 Needs to Apply DSM 433
16.4 Means of DSM Programs 434
16.5 International Experience with DSM 437
16.6 Potential for DSM Application 438
16.7 The DSM Planning Process 439
16.8 Expected Benefits of Managing Demand 444
16.9 Energy Efficiency 444
16.10 Scenarios Used for Energy-Efficiency Application 445
16.11 Economic Benefits of Energy Efficiency 445
16.12 Application of Efficient Technology 445
Chapter 17 SCADA Systems 465
17.1 Introduction 465
17.2 Definitions 469
17.3 SCADA Components 470
17.4 SCADA Systems Architectures 473
17.5 SCADA Applications 480
17.6 SCADA and Grid Modernization 484
Part V Distributed Energy Resources And Microgrids
Chapter 18 Distributed Generation 489
18.1 Power Systems and Distributed Generation 489
18.2 Performance of Distributed Generators 493
18.3 Case Study 518
Chapter 19 Electrical Energy Storage 535
19.1 Introduction 535
19.2 Electrical Energy Storage 535
19.3 Role of Electrical Energy Storage 538
19.4 Types of EES Systems 540
19.5 Energy Storage Application 550
Chapter 20 Microgrids And Smart Grids 553
20.1 Background 553
20.2 MG Benefits 555
20.3 MG Operation 556
20.4 Challenges 556
20.5 Handling the Challenges 557
20.6 Control Methodology 558
20.7 Case Study 560
20.8 Protection for MGs 570
20.9 Concluding Remarks on MGs 572
20.10 Smart Grids 572
Appendix A Data Of Microgrid Components 581
Appendix B Matlab Simulink Models 583
References 589
Index 601
