Progress in Solar Energy Technology and Applications
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Umakanta Sahoo, PhD , is Research Scientist at the National Institute of Solar Energy, India. He received his undergraduate degree in mechanical engineering from the Institute of Technical Education and Research, Bhubaneswar, India and his PhD in mechanical engineering at the Delhi Technological University, Delhi, India. He has seven years of research experience in the fields of solar, thermal and biomass energy. He has published many research papers in international journals one book in the field of solar and biomass energy and six books in the field of mechanical engineering. His research interest areas are energy, exergy, hybrid solar-biomass power in co- and poly-generation processes, primary energy saving, waste heat utilization for industrial processes, and many others in alternative and renewable energy. He has conducted voluminous training on designing, operation and maintenance of solar thermal systems.
Content
About the Editor xi
Contributors xii
1 Reliability Testing of PV Module in the Outdoor Condition 1
Birinchi Bora, O.S. Sastry, Som Mondal and B. Prasad
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Indoor Testing of Reliability of PV Module 4
1.3 Basics of Measurement Methods used to Identify Failures in the PV Module in the Field after Installation 7
1.3.1 Visual Inspection 8
1.3.2 I-V Tracer 11
1.3.3 Temperature Coefficient 13
1.3.4 Series Resistance 15
1.3.5 Curve Correction Factor 16
1.3.6 Dark I-V 17
1.3.7 Degradation Analysis 18
1.3.8 IR Thermography 19
1.3.9 Insulation Resistance Tester 22
1.3.10 EL Camera 23
1.3.11 Interconnect Breakage Tester 25
1.3.12 Current, Voltage and Continuity Checking 25
1.3.13 Environmental Parameter Checking 25
1.4 Quantification of Reliability 26
1.5 Procedure for Performance and Reliability Testing of PV Module in Outdoor Conditions 33
1.5.1 Selection Procedure of PV Modules for Testing in the Field 33
1.5.2 Testing Report Format of Performance Guarantee Test 33
1.6 Conclusion 35
Abbreviation 35
References 36
2 Solar Energy Technologies and Water Potential for Distillation: A Pre-Feasibility Investigation for Rajasthan, India 39
Nikhil Gakkhar, Manoj Kumar Soni and Sanjeev Jakhar
2.1 Introduction 40
2.2 Solar Assisted Technologies for Water Purification 41
2.3 Resource Availability in Rajasthan, India, for Solar Distillation 45
2.3.1 Availability of Solar Irradiance 47
2.3.2 Land Availability in Rajasthan 47
2.3.3 Water Availability from Various Sources 51
2.3.3.1 Surface Water Resources of Rajasthan 51
2.3.3.2 Rainfall 54
2.3.3.3 Domestic Wastewater 54
2.3.3.4 Groundwater 58
2.4 Estimation of Solar Potential and Water Availability 58
2.4.1 Solar PV Potential 59
2.4.2 Solar CSP Potential 60
2.4.3 Water Potential Estimation for Distillation 61
2.5 Choice of Distillation Technology 65
2.5.1 PV-Assisted RO Plants 65
2.5.2 CSP-Assisted MSF Plants 71
2.6 Conclusion 75
Nomenclature 77
References 77
3 Design Analysis of Solar Photovoltaic Power Plants for Northern and Southern Regions of India 83
Sanjay Kumar
3.1 Introduction 83
3.1.1 Solar Power in India 88
3.2 Site Selection 90
3.2.1 Geography 90
3.2.2 Specification of Locations 100
3.2.3 Location Dedicated for Power Plant Setup 100
3.2.4 Load Profile of INA 116
3.3 Technology 124
3.3.1 Solar PV Systems 124
3.3.2 Major Components 125
3.3.2.1 Module 126
3.3.2.2 Inverters 127
3.3.2.3 Auxiliary Components 128
3.4 BOM for 3MW Power Plant 134
3.5 Quality, Testing and Standard Certification 140
3.6.1 Modules selection 146
3.6.1.1 Installation of Module 147
3.6.2 Inverter Selection 148
3.7 Financial Analysis 150
3.8 Plant Layout with Electrical and Civil Engineering Aspects 151
3.8.1 Land Requirement 151
3.8.2 Plant Layout 151
3.8.3 Civil Works 152
3.8.4 Module Mounting Structures 152
3.8.5 Operation and Maintenance 152
3.9 Monitoring System 153
3.9.1 SCADA 153
3.9.2 Control and Instrumentation System 154
3.10 Environmental Aspects 155
3.10.1 State Pollution Control Board Clearances 156
3.11 Project Management 156
3.11.1 Project Contracting 156
3.11.2 Quality Management 157
3.11.3 Construction Management 157
3.11.4 Health, Safety and Environment 158
3.11.5 Commissioning and Testing 159
3.11.6 Operation and Maintenance (O & M) 160
3.11.7 Training 161
3.12 Solar Business Models for Megawatt-Scale Projects in India 161
3.12.1 Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) Model 161
3.12.2 Captive Model 161
3.12.3 REC Model 162
3.12.4 REC Formalities and Procedures 163
3.12.5 Business Models under the REC Mechanism 165
3.12.6 Risk Factors of REC 166
3.13 Concepts toward Net Zero Energy Solar Building 167
3.14 Strategy Implementation 168
3.15 Conclusion 176
Abbreviations 177
References 179
4 Cold Storage with Backup Thermal Energy Storage System 181
K. Sahoo, B. Bandhyopadhyay, S. Mukhopadhyay, U. Sahoo, T. S. Kumar, V. Yadav and Y. Singh
4.1 Introduction 181
4.1.1 Recommended Condition for Fruits and Vegetables 183
4.1.2 Incompatibility 183
4.2 Solar Energy Scenario 184
4.2.1 Overview of Solar Radiation 187
4.2.1.1 Basic Principles 187
4.2.1.2 Diffuse and Direct Solar Radiation 188
4.2.1.3 Global Solar Radiation 188
4.3 Refrigeration Technology Overview 190
4.3.1 Brier Introduction of Refrigeration 190
4.3.2 Carnot Cycle 191
4.3.3 Reverse Carnot Cycle 192
4.3.4 Air Refrigeration Cycle 193
4.3.5 Vapour Compression Refrigeration System 194
4.3.6 Actual Vapour Compression Refrigeration System 195
4.4 Literature Review 195
4.5 Designing of Solar PV Cold Storage 196
4.5.1 Determining the Size of Cold Room 197
4.5.2 Cooling Load Calculation 197
4.5.2.1 Transmission Load 197
4.5.2.2 Heat Transmission through Door 198
4.5.2.3 Equipment Load 199
4.5.2.4 Product Heat Load 199
4.5.2.5 Heat of Respiration 199
4.5.2.6 Human Occupancy Load 200
4.5.2.7 Cooling Load Due to Thermal Energy Storage 200
4.5.3 Cooling Load Summary for 10 MT Storage Capacities 200
4.5.4 Solar Photovoltaic Plant Design 202
4.5.4.1 Photovoltaic Module Design 202
4.5.4.2 Inverter Sizing 202
4.5.4.3 Battery Sizing 203
4.5.4.4 Solar Charge Controller Sizing 203
4.6 Design of Cold Room Mechanical System 203
4.7 Designing of Thermal Energy Storage System (TES) 206
4.8 Battery Storage 208
4.9 Refrigerant 208
4.10 Specification of Cold Storage and Thermal Energy Storage System 209
4.11 Design of Solar Thermal Based Cold Storage 210
4.11.1 Technology Selection 211
4.11.2 Energy and Collector Area Required from Solar Thermal Technology 212
4.12 Economic Analysis 213
4.12.1 Net Present Value (NPV) 213
4.12.2 Internal Rate of Return (IRR) 214
4.12.3 Payback Period 214
4.13 Economic Analysis of Solar PV Cold Storage 215
4.13.1 NPV and IRR Calculation of Solar PV Cold Storage 215
4.13.2 Payback Period of Solar PV Cold Storage 221
4.14 Economic Analysis of Solar Thermal System Based Cold Storage 223
4.14.1 NPV and IRR Calculation 223
4.14.2 Payback Period of Solar Thermal Cold Storage 229
4.15 Conclusion 231
References 231
5 Development of Parabolic Trough Collector Based Power and Ejector Refrigeration System Using Eco-Friendly Refrigerants 233
D.K. Gupta, R. Kumar and N. Kumar
5.1 Introduction 234
5.2 Literature Review 236
5.3 Solar Operated Ejector Cooling and Power Cycle 244
5.3.1 Working of Proposed Cycle 245
5.3.2 First and Second Law Analysis of Proposed Cycle 247
5.4 Ejector Cooling and Power Cycle with Various Ecofriendly Refrigerants 250
5.4.1 System Description 250
5.4.2 Properties of Refrigerants 251
5.4.3 Thermodynamic Analysis 251
5.4.4 Parameters considered for Operation of Proposed System 253
5.5 Ejector Organic Rankine Cycle Integrated with a Triple Pressure Level Vapour Absorption System 253
5.5.1 Working of Proposed System 253
5.5.2 Energy and Exergy Analysis of the Proposed System 258
5.6 Combined Organic Rankine Cycle with Double Ejector 261
5.6.1 Working of Proposed Cycle 262
5.6.2 First and Second Law Analysis of Proposed Cycle 264
5.7 Result and Discussions 267
5.8 Conclusion 297
Nomenclatures 298
Greek symbols 299
Subscript 300
References 300
6 Unlocking the Design of Stand-Alone and Grid-Connected Rooftop Solar PV Systems 309
Tanmay Bishnoi
6.1 Introduction 310
6.2 Stand-Alone Solar PV System 312
6.2.1 Types of Stand-Alone PV System Configurations 312
6.2.2 Design Methodology 313
6.2.3 Detailed Steps for Designing a Solar PV System 314
6.2.4 Stand-Alone Solar PV System Design and Safety Standards 330
6.3 Grid-Connected Solar PV System 330
6.3.1 Step by Step Procedure for Designing a Rooftop Grid-Connected Solar PV System 331
6.3.2 Grid-Tied Solar PV System Standards 333
6.3.3 Performance Analysis of a Solar PV System 334
6.4 Costing Analysis for a Solar PV System 337
6.5 Conclusion 359
References 360
Index 363
Chapter 1
Reliability Testing of PV Module in the Outdoor Condition
Birinchi Bora*1, O.S. Sastry1, Som Mondal2 and B. Prasad2
1National Institute of Solar Energy, Gurugram, India
2TERI School of Advanced Studies, New Delhi, India
*Corresponding author: birinchibora09@gmail.com
Abstract
This chapter describes the procedure of reliability testing of PV modules. Applicable standards for both indoor and outdoor conditions are explained. Required equipment for the inspection of the PV module in the outdoor condition, its scope and procedures, are described in this chapter. Procedures to quantify the reliability of different failure modes are also explained. A test report format is described in the chapter for reporting the reliability of PV module.
Keywords: PV module, reliability, indoor test, outdoor test, temperature coefficient, I-V tracer, degradation, breakage tester
1.1 Introduction
People's energy requirements are increasing day by day. For meeting their energy requirements, most people are using conventional energy sources. However, due to limited and unsustainable conventional sources of energy generation, the popularity of solar photovoltaic is increasing as one of the cleanest and best energy sources. As per Global status report 2018 (REN21), renewable energy covers 26.5% of the total estimated global energy consumption. In global energy consumption, the contribution of solar PV technology is only 1.9% [1]. In recent years, PV power plant installation in developing countries has been increasing because of its decentralized applications. It has been observed that in India, the total target of PV power plant installation is very high, up to 100 GW by 2022 [2]. Most of the developed and developing countries of the world are increasing their target to use solar PV as an energy source [3]. So, the competition in the solar PV power market is increasing day by day.
People are cutting costs in the power plant installation to reduce the payback period. The cost of installation of a PV power plant is going down, but at the same time, the component used for the power plant must be reliable. The reliability of a power plant is nothing but getting optimum output with safety during its operating lifetime [4]. The reliability of the components of the PV power plant needs to be tested before its installation in the field [5]. Testing standards for reliability testing of components of PV power plant are available from different international organizations like the International Electro-technical Commission (IEC), IEEE, UL, TUV, etc. In the case of a tropical country like India, the module gets a fail in the field because of the harsh environment, although the module qualifies in the test, according to IEC 61215/IEC 61646. A survey conducted by National Institute of Solar Energy, India and Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, India, has reported that the degradation rate of C-Si in the field is more than 2% per year in the case of a good module. However, the degradation rate is very high in the case of bad modules [6-8]. To ensure the performance guarantee during its lifetime the reliability of the power plant needs to be maintained. Sometimes the PV module needs to be replaced in the power plant after some time of operations if reliability issues arise. The reliability checking of the module after installation is a requirement to ensure the performance guarantee.
There are three different types of a PV power plant in terms of its design configurations, viz., off-grid, on-grid and hybrid power plant. An off-grid power plant consists of a PV module, inverter, battery, and no feeding electricity to the grid; An on-grid PV power plant consists of a PV module, inverter and feeding electricity directly to the grid; a hybrid PV power plant consists of a PV module, inverter, battery and feeds electricity to the grid and also has off-grid use. A typical list of the bill of material (BOM) of 1 MWp on-grid PV power plant is given in Table 1.1. The list will give the reader a glimpse about the requirements of different components for the installation of the PV power plant. For the inspection of the PV power plant, it is necessary to know about the technical specifications of the components used. The AC and DC components used for the power plant and the details about the weather sensors required to be used are also given in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 BOM of 1 MWp Grid-Tied SPV Power Plant.
Sl. No. Description Approximate Quantity Unit 1 Solar PV Module 1000 kWp 2 1000 kW Grid Tied 3- Phase Central Inverter 1 Nos. 3 Mounting structure for ground 1000 kWp 4 DC String Fuse (1000V, 20A) 300 Nos. 5 DC Isolator [(1500V, 100A) + (1500V, 160A)] 1+12 Nos. 6 DC Surge Protector Device 13 Nos. 7 DC Combiner Box [(12 In - 1 Out) + (6 In - 1 Out)] 12 + 1 Nos. 8 DC cable [(Single core, 6mm2), (Single core, 70mm2)] 1100+1700 Meter 9 1.25 MVA, 400V/33kV Transformer and compact substation 1 Nos. 10 AC wire for Inverter to transformer (Single core, 400mm2 Al) 32 Meter 11 AC wire Transformer to meter (4 core, 120 mm2 Al) 400 Meter 12 Vacuum circuit breaker 33kV 1 Nos. 13 Lightning arrestors 4 Nos. 14 Earthing strip earth pit 14 Nos. 15 Energy meter 1 Set 16 Monitoring system 1 Set 17 Pressure sensor 1 Set 18 Rain gauge 1 Set 19 Humidity sensor 1 Set 20 Wind sensor 1 Set 21 Pyranometer 1 Set 21 Temperature sensor 3 SetThe failure mode of a PV module is defined as the defects that (i) produce non-reversible degradation of power output and (ii) creates a safety issue. There are some defects that do not affect the performance and safety of PV module; such are known as benign defects [9-11]. A PV module failure is relevant for the warranty when it occurs under conditions the module normally experiences. There are two types of reliability testing of PV module: before installation and after installation. Before installation, PV modules are usually tested in indoor conditions. After installation of the PV module in the field, indoor testing is a tedious job and it is not economically feasible for a large type of installation. To check the reliability of a PV module in the field, outdoor testing with proper procedure needs to be adopted. The power plant owner can check the power plant during its warranty period for claiming warranty. Usually, a PV module degrades more than any other components of a PV power plant in the field. The technologies of all other components are more matured than PV modules. In this chapter basically, the reliability study of PV module in the outdoor condition will be analyzed in detail.
1.2 Indoor Testing of Reliability of PV Module
For the testing of the qualification or reliability of PV module, there are different standards available for indoor testing. The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) prepares and publishes international standards for all electrical, electronic and related technologies including PV modules. For indoor testing of reliability of PV modules before installation in the field some of the following IEC standards can be used:
- IEC 61215: 2016
There are two main sections under this category:- I. IEC 61215-1: 2016 Terrestrial photovoltaic (PV) modules - Design qualification and type approval - Part 1: Test requirements [12]
This standard depicts the test requirements to test the design qualification requirements and type approval of terrestrial module for long-term operation in the field. It is applicable to all terrestrial flat-plate modules such as crystalline silicon and thin-film module types. It has four parts:- IEC 61215-1-1:2016 Terrestrial photovoltaic (PV) modules - Design qualification and type approval - Part 1-1: Special requirements for testing of crystalline silicon photovoltaic (PV) modules [13].
- IEC 61215-1-2:2016 Terrestrial photovoltaic (PV) modules - Design qualification and type approval - Part 1-2: Special requirements for testing of thin-film Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) based photovoltaic (PV) modules [14].
- IEC 61215-1-3:2016 Terrestrial photovoltaic (PV) modules - Design qualification and type approval - Part...
- I. IEC 61215-1: 2016 Terrestrial photovoltaic (PV) modules - Design qualification and type approval - Part 1: Test requirements [12]
