
Language Engineering and Translation
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Content
- LANGUAGE ENGINEERING AND TRANSLATION CONSEQUENCES OF AUTOMATION
- Editorial page
- Title page
- Copyright page
- Acknowledgements
- Table of contents
- Preface. Translation in an Industrial Setting
- Chapter One. The Language Industry and its Raw Material
- 1. The Language Industry and Translation
- 1.1 The industrialisation of communication
- 1.2 The scope of 'Language Industry'
- 1.2.1 Support industry
- 1.2.2 Industry for processing languages
- 1.2.3 Industry for the production of languages
- 1.2.4 Tools and Products
- 1.3 The evolution of the language industry
- 1.3.1 The present situation
- 1.3.2 The role of linguistic research
- 1.4 The structure of the language industry
- 1.4.1 Science and application
- 1.4.2 Range of written and spoken languages
- 1.4.3 Reception and production
- 1.4.4 Applications and products
- 1.5 Conditions for the design and application of industrial tools
- 1.5.1 Conditions for the development of the machine translation industry
- 2. Theoretical Aspects of Language
- 2.1 The nature and uses of language
- 2.2 The intention of speech acts
- 2.2.1 The pragmatic dimension of speech acts
- 2.3 The concept of sublanguages
- 2.3.1 Criteria for establishing sublanguages
- 2.4 Evolution and types of language varieties
- 2.5 Natural and artificial languages
- 2.5.1 Characteristics of natural language
- 2.5.2 Characteristics of artificial languages
- 2.6 The evolution of restricted languages
- 2.7 Definition of special subject languages
- 2.7.1 Disciplines and subject fields
- 2.7.1.1 Special knowledge reflected in texts
- 2.7.1.2 Special knowledge and reference
- 2.7.2 Special usage
- 2.7.3 Special restrictions
- Chapter Two. Communication Theory for Translation
- 3. Elements of a Communication Theory
- 3.1 The environment of communication
- 3.2 Preconditions of communication
- 3.2.1 Communicative situations
- 3.2.2 The situation of the written speech act
- 3.2.3 Components of the speech act
- 3.2.3.1 The stimulus
- 3.2.3.2 Temporal factors
- Point of time
- Duration
- Time lag
- Regularity
- 3.2.3.3 Spatial factors
- 3.2.3.4 Personal factors
- 3.3 Choices in communication
- 3.3.1 Choice of content of the message (its topic and aspect)
- 3.3.1.1 Topic
- 3.3.1.2 Aspect
- 3.3.2 Choice of purpose (Intention + Expectation)
- 3.3.2.1 Social purpose
- 3.3.2.2 Informative purpos
- 3.3.2.3 Directive purpose
- 3.3.2.4 Discursive purpose
- 3.3.2.5 Evaluative purpose
- 3.3.3 Choice of affectivity
- 3.3.4 Choice of language
- 3.3.5 Choice oftext types
- 3.3.6 Choice of techniques of communication
- 3.3.6.1 Choice of non-linguistic vs mixed linguistic/nonlinguistic communication
- 3.3.6.2 Choice of external form
- 3.3.6.3 Choice of technical means
- 3.3.6.4 Choice of axes of expression
- 3.3.6.4.1 Geographical variation
- 3.3.6.4.2 Topic dependence
- 3.3.6.4.3 Level
- 33.6.4.4 Formality
- Frozen & formal
- Casual & intimate
- Consultative
- 4. A Theory of Text Types and Messages
- 4.1 Text types
- 4.1.1 Macro text types in science and technology
- 4.1.1.1 Schedule
- 4.1.1.2 Memo
- 4.1.1.3 Essay
- 4.1.1.4 Report
- 4.1.2 Reader recognition of text type
- 4.1.3 Criteria for defining a textual unit
- 4.1.3.1 The concept of textuality
- 4.1.3.2 Text types as efficient units of communication
- 4.1.4 Inter-related texts
- 4.1.4.1 Formal inter-relation
- 4.1.4.2 Content inter-relation
- 4.1.4.3 Inter-relation by imitation
- 4.2 A model of document production and reception
- 4.2.1 The role of participants in production and reception
- 4.2.2 Production
- 4.2.3 Reception and understanding
- 4.2.3.1 Primary and secondary reader
- 4.2.3.2 Assistance in reading-understanding
- 4.2.4 The product
- 4.2.4.1 Text and message from the writer perspective
- 4.2.4.2 Text and message from the reader' s viewpoint
- 4.3 Criteria for successful communication
- 4.3.1 Knowledge
- 4.3.2 Cooperation
- 4.3.3 Relevance
- 4.4 Text modification
- 4.4.1 Types of document modification
- 4.4.1.1 Correction
- 4.4.1.2 Editing
- 4.4.1.3 Derivation
- 4.4.2 Types of derived texts
- 4.4.3 Methods of modification
- 4.4.3.1 Transformation
- 4.4.3.2 Translation
- 4.4.4 The professions concerned with text modification
- 4.4.5 Criteria for successful modification
- Chapter Three. Theoretical Aspects of Translation
- 5. The Nature of Translation
- 5.1 The scope of theories of translation
- 5.1.1 Two aspects of translation
- 5.1.1.1 Process
- 5.1.1.2 Products
- 5.1.2 Dimensions of a theory
- 5.1.2.1 Communicative/author dimension
- 5.1.2.2 Document or product dimension
- 5.1.2.3 Reader/agent/recipient dimension
- 5.1.2.4 Motivation/translator dimension
- 5.1.2.5 Situational dimension
- 5.1.3 Machine translation as a new activity and product
- 5.2 The meanings of translation
- 5.2.1 Existing definitions of translation
- 5.2.2 Other meanings of translation
- 5.3 The concept of translatability
- 5.3.1 The legitimacy of translation
- 5.3.2 Cultural arguments
- 5.3.3 Philosophical arguments
- 5.3.4 Measures of translatability
- 5.4 The basis of a theory of translation
- 5.4.1 Process model of translation
- 5.4.2 Translation situations
- 5.5 The concept of equivalence
- 5.6 Evaluation of translation
- 5.6.1 Criteria for evaluation
- 6. Specifications: Factors Influencing the Translation Process
- 6.1 Conditions for modelling the translation process
- 6.1.1 Basic approaches to translation techniques
- 6.2 Existing models of the translation process
- 6.3 Major types of translation activities
- 6.3.1 Literary translation
- 6.3.2 Bible translation
- 6.3.3 Industrial translation
- 6.4 Analysis of the translation task
- 6.4.1 Alternative views of the task
- 6.5 Specification phase
- 6.5.1 Identification of source language document
- 6.5.1.1 Recognition of text type and topic
- 6.5.1.2 Recognition of intention
- 6.5.2 Interpretation of specifications
- 6.5.2.1 The situation of the translation process
- 6.5.2.2 Time and cost factors
- 6.5.2.3 The condition of the translator
- 6.5.2.4 Writer and reader factors
- 6.5.2.5 User expectation
- 6.5.2.6 Source and product (textual) factors
- 6.6 Functional types of translation
- 6.6.1 Autonomous documents
- 6.6.2 Interdependent documents
- 6.6.2.1 Parallel documents
- 6.6.2.2 Full equal document
- 6.6.3 Derived documents
- 6.6.3.1 Selective document translation (Excerpts)
- 6.6.3.2 Reduced document translation (Abstracts)
- 6.6.3.3 Translations with the same function
- 6.6.3.4 Translations with a different function
- Target language text type
- Translation text type
- 6.6.4 Functional types of translation by intention
- 6.6.5 Other functional types of translation
- Chapter Four. A Model of the Translation Process
- 7 Preparation for Translation
- 7.1 Choice of target language text type
- 7.2 Choice of translation strategy
- 7.2.1 Motivation of diverse translation strategies
- 7.2.1.1 Full, reduced and selective translation
- 7.2.1.2 Temporal segmentation of the process
- 7.2.2 The impact of electronic devices on the choice of strategy
- 7.2.2.1 Choice of machine assistance or MT
- 7.2.3 The interaction of choices
- 7.3 Reading Comprehension: Human text understanding
- 7.3.1 The knowledge dimension of text understanding
- 7.3.2 The pragmatic dimension of text understanding
- 7.3.3 The linguistic dimension of text understanding
- 7.3.4 The limits imposed on comprehension
- 7.3.4.1 Implications for the automatic analysis of texts
- 7.3.4.2 Translator competence
- 7.4 Dictionary look-up
- 7.4.1 Modes of dictionary consultation
- 7.5 Electronic tools to support dictionary consultation
- 8 Steps in Translation
- 8.1 The translation process
- 8.1.1 Translation units
- 8.1.2 A psycholinguistic model
- 8.1.3 Modes of processing
- 8.1.4 Extension of the existing model
- 8.2 Resolution of ambiguity
- 8.3 Search for equivalents
- 8.3.1 Units of equivalence
- 8.4 Translation techniques
- 8.5 Matching
- 8.5.1 Lexical matching
- 8.5.2 Syntactic matching
- 8.5.3 Pragmatic matching
- 8.5.4 The need for pre-established match
- 8.5.5 Criteria for efficient matching
- 8.6 Compensation
- 8.7 Text production/encoding
- 8.8 Evaluation and revision
- 8.8.1 Content comparison and contr
- 8.8.2 Revision
- 8.8.3 Criteria for evaluation
- 8.9 Presentation
- Chapter Five. The Automated Dimension of Translation
- 9 Human and Machine Translation
- 9.1 Modes of comparison
- 9.2 Comparison of the translation processes
- 9.2.1 Translation as problem solving
- 9.2.2 The expert system view
- 9.2.2.1 The type and nature of knowledge bases
- 9.2.3 The nature of the modules in the MT process
- 9.2.3.1 Comprehension vs. analysis
- 9.2.3.2 Matching vs. transfer
- 9.2.3.3 Writing vs. generation
- 9.2.4 Current limitations of MT
- 9.3 Comparison of human and machine translation products
- 9.3.1 Human vs. machine-produced texts
- 9.3.1.1 The nature of machine-generated (MT) language
- 9.3.2 Flexibility vs. rigidity in text types
- 9.4 Uses of MT
- 9.5 Comparative evaluation of MT produced texts
- 9.5.1 Methods of MT evaluation
- 10 The Pragmatic Circumstances of Automation in Translation
- 10.1 Methods of MT
- 10.1.1 Linguistic approaches
- 10.1.2 The semantic approach
- 10.2 Users of MT systems
- 10.2.1 The translator as producer
- 10.2.2 The writer as translation producer
- 10.2.3 Readers of translations
- 10.2.4 The information supplier
- 10.3 Brief description of MT systems
- 10.4 Functional types of machine translation
- 10.4.1 MT as human translation aid
- 10.4.2 Translation by reference to existing models
- 10.4.3 MT as text-type specific independent systems
- 10.4.3.1 Reader-oriented MT
- 10.4.3.2 Writer-oriented MT
- 10.4.3.3 Writer-oriented editing of pre-translated text
- 10.4.4 MT of machine-readable restricted language texts
- 10.4.5 ?T of machine-readable artificial language text
- 10.4.6 Outlook
- 10.5 Other Applications of MT technology
- 10.6 Other ways of classifying MT systems
- 10.6.1 Typology of MT systems by text types
- 10.6.2 Typology of MT systems by degree of automation
- 10.7 Criteria for the use of MT
- 10.7.1 Cost factors
- 10.7.2 Document selection for MT processing
- Chapter Six. Industrialisation of Translation
- 11 Translation in an Information Technology Environment
- 11.1 Industrial aspects of translation
- 11.1.1 The cost and value of translation
- 11.1.2 Growth in demand
- 11.1.3 The market for MT
- 11.2 A pragmatic view of the development of MT
- 11.2.1 MT system designers and producers
- 11.2.2 Translators as users of information technology and MT
- 11.2.3 Survey of the evolution of MT
- 11.2.4 Practical achievements of MT
- 11.3 Future prospects for the language industry
- Bibliography
- Glossary
- Subject Index
- Author Index
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