
Radio Frequency Integrated Circuit Design, Second Edition
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Content
- Radio Frequency Integrated Circuit Design Second Edition
- Contents
- Foreword to the First Edition
- Preface
- Acknowledgments
- Chapter 1 Introduction to Communications Circuits
- 1.1 Introduction
- 1.2 Lower Frequency Analog Design and Microwave Design Versus Radio-Frequency Integrated Circuit Design
- 1.2.1 Impedance Levels for Microwave and Low-Frequency Analog Design
- 1.2.2 Units for Microwave and Low-Frequency Analog Design
- 1.3 Radio-Frequency Integrated Circuits Used in a Communications Transceiver
- 1.4 Overview
- References
- Chapter 2 Issues in RFIC Design: Noise, Linearity,and Signals
- 2.1 Introduction
- 2.2 Noise
- 2.2.1 Thermal Noise
- 2.2.2 Available Noise Power
- 2.2.3 Available Power from Antenna
- 2.2.4 The Concept of Noise Figure
- 2.2.5 The Noise Figure of an Amplifier Circuit
- 2.2.6 Phase Noise
- 2.3 Linearity and Distortion in RF Circuits
- 2.3.1 Power Series Expansion
- 2.3.2 Third-Order Intercept Point
- 2.3.3 Second-Order Intercept Point
- 2.3.4 The 1-dB Compression Point
- 2.3.5 Relationships Between 1-dB Compression and IP3 Points
- 2.3.6 Broadband Measures of Linearity
- 2.4 Modulated Signals
- 2.4.1 Phase Modulation
- 2.4.2 Frequency Modulation
- 2.4.3 Minimum Shift Keying (MSK)
- 2.4.4 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
- 2.4.5 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
- References
- Chapter 3 System Level Architecture and Design Considerations
- 3.1 Transmitter and Receiver Architectures and Some Design Considerations
- 3.1.2 Direct Conversion Transceivers
- 3.1.3 Low IF Transceiver and Other Alternative Transceiver Architectures
- 3.2 System Level Considerations
- 3.2.1 The Noise Figure of Components in Series
- 3.2.2 The Linearity of Components in Series
- 3.2.3 Dynamic Range
- 3.2.4 Image Signals and Image Reject Filtering
- 3.2.5 Blockers and Blocker Filtering
- 3.2.6 The Effect of Phase Noise on SNR in a Receiver
- 3.2.7 DC Offset
- 3.2.8 Second-Order Nonlinearity Issues
- 3.2.9 Receiver Automatic Gain Control Issues
- 3.2.10 EVM in Transmitters Including Phase Noise, Linearity, IQ Mismatch,EVM with OFDM Waveforms, and Nonlinearity
- 3.2.11 ADC and DAC Specifications
- 3.3 Antennas and the Link Between a Transmitter and a Receiver
- References
- Chapter 4 A Brief Review of Technology
- 4.1 Introduction
- 4.2 Bipolar Transistor Description
- 4.3 b Current Dependence
- 4.4 Small-Signal Model
- 4.5 Small-Signal Parameters
- 4.6 High-Frequency Effects
- 4.6.1 fT as a Function of Current
- 4.7 Noise in Bipolar Transistors
- 4.7.1 Thermal Noise in Transistor Components
- 4.7.2 Shot Noise
- 4.7.3 1/f Noise
- 4.8 Base Shot Noise Discussion
- 4.9 Noise Sources in the Transistor Model
- 4.10 Bipolar Transistor Design Considerations
- 4.11 CMOS Transistors
- 4.11.1 NMOS Transistor Operation
- 4.11.2 PMOS Transistor Operation
- 4.11.3 CMOS Small-Signal Model
- 4.11.4 fT and fmax for CMOS Transistors
- 4.12 Practical Considerations in Transistor Layout
- 4.12.1 Typical Transistors
- 4.12.2 Symmetry
- 4.12.3 Matching
- 4.12.4 ESD Protection and Antenna Rules
- References
- Chapter 5 Impedance Matching
- 5.1 Introduction
- 5.2 Review of the Smith Chart
- 5.3 Impedance Matching
- 5.4 Conversions Between Series and Parallel Resistor-Inductorand Resistor-Capacitor Circuits
- 5.5 Tapped Capacitors and Inductors
- 5.6 The Concept of Mutual Inductance
- 5.7 Matching Using Transformers
- 5.8 Tuning a Transformer
- 5.9 The Bandwidth of an Impedance Transformation Network
- 5.10 Quality Factor of an LC Resonator
- 5.11 Broadband Impedance Matching
- 5.12 Transmission Lines
- 5.13 S, Y, and Z Parameters
- References
- Chapter 6 The Use and Design of Passive Circuit Elements in IC Technologies
- 6.1 Introduction
- 6.2 The Technology Back End and Metalization in IC Technologies
- 6.3 Sheet Resistance and the Skin Effect
- 6.4 Parasitic Capacitance
- 6.5 Parasitic Inductance
- 6.6 Current Handling in Metal Lines
- 6.7 Poly Resistors and Diffusion Resistors
- 6.8 Metal-Insulator-Metal Capacitors and Stacked Metal Capacitors
- 6.9 Applications of On-Chip Spiral Inductors and Transformers
- 6.10 Design of Inductors and Transformers
- 6.11 Some Basic Lumped Models for Inductors
- 6.12 Calculating the Inductance of Spirals
- 6.13 Self-Resonance of Inductors
- 6.14 The Quality Factor of an Inductor
- 6.15 Characterization of an Inductor
- 6.16 Some Notes about the Proper Use of Inductors
- 6.17 Layout of Spiral Inductors
- 6.18 Isolating the Inductor
- 6.19 The Use of Slotted Ground Shields and Inductors
- 6.20 Basic Transformer Layouts in IC Technologies
- 6.21 Multilevel Inductors
- 6.22 Characterizing Transformers for Use in ICs
- 6.23 On-Chip Transmission Lines
- 6.23.1 Effect of Transmission Line
- 6.23.2 Transmission Line Examples
- 6.24 High-Frequency Measurement of On-Chip Passives and Some Common De-Embedding Techniques
- 6.25 Packaging
- References
- Chapter 7 LNA Design
- 7.1 Introduction and Basic Amplifiers
- 7.1.1 Common-Emitter/Source Amplifier (Driver)
- 7.1.2 Simplified Expressions for Widely Separated Poles
- 7.1.3 The Common-Base/Gate Amplifier (Cascode)
- 7.1.4 The Common-Collector/Drain Amplifier (Emitter/Source Follower)
- 7.2 Amplifiers with Feedback
- 7.2.1 Common-Emitter/Source with Series Feedback (Emitter/SourceDegeneration)
- 7.2.2 The Common-Emitter/Source with Shunt Feedback
- 7.3 Noise in Amplifiers
- 7.3.1 Input Referred Noise Model of the Bipolar Transistor
- 7.3.2 Noise Figure of the Common-Emitter Amplifier
- 7.3.3 Noise Model of the CMOS Transistor
- 7.3.4 Input Matching of LNAs for Low Noise
- 7.3.5 Relationship Between Noise Figure and Bias Current
- 7.3.6 Effect of the Cascode on Noise Figure
- 7.3.7 Noise in the Common-Collector/Drain Amplifier
- 7.4 Linearity in Amplifiers
- 7.4.1 Exponential Nonlinearity in the Bipolar Transistor
- 7.4.2 Nonlinearity in the CMOS Transistor
- 7.4.3 Nonlinearity in the Output Impedance of the Bipolar Transistor
- 7.4.4 High-Frequency Nonlinearity in the Bipolar Transistor
- 7.4.5 Linearity in Common-Collector/Drain Configuration
- 7.5 Stability
- 7.6 Differential Amplifiers
- 7.6.1 Bipolar Differential Pair
- 7.6.2 Linearity in Bipolar Differential Pairs
- 7.6.3 CMOS Differential Pair
- 7.6.4 Linearity of the CMOS Differential Pair
- 7.7 Low Voltage Topologies for LNAs and the Use of On-Chip Transformers
- 7.8 DC Bias Networks
- 7.8.1 Temperature Effects
- 7.8.2 Temperature Independent Reference Generators
- 7.8.3 Constant GM Biasing for CMOS
- 7.9 Broadband LNA Design Example
- 7.10 Distributed Amplifiers
- 7.10.1 Transmission Lines
- 7.10.2 Steps in Designing the Distributed Amplifier
- References
- Selected Bibliography
- Chapter 8 Mixers
- 8.1 Introduction
- 8.2 Mixing with Nonlinearity
- 8.3 Basic Mixer Operation
- 8.4 Transconductance-Controlled Mixer
- 8.5 Double-Balanced Mixer
- 8.6 Mixer with Switching of Upper Quad
- 8.6.1 Why LO Switching?
- 8.6.2 Picking the LO Level
- 8.6.3 Analysis of Switching Modulator
- 8.7 Mixer Noise
- 8.7.1 Summary of Bipolar Mixer Noise Components
- 8.7.2 Summary of CMOS Mixer Noise Components
- 8.8 Linearity
- 8.8.1 Desired Nonlinearity
- 8.8.2 Undesired Nonlinearity
- 8.9 Improving Isolation
- 8.10 General Design Comments
- 8.10.1 Sizing Transistors
- 8.10.2 Increasing Gain
- 8.10.3 Improvement of IP3
- 8.10.4 Improving Noise Figure
- 8.10.5 Effect of Bond Pads and the Package
- 8.10.6 Matching, Bias Resistors, Gain
- 8.11 Image-Reject and Single-Sideband Mixer
- 8.11.1 Alternative Single-Sideband Mixers
- 8.11.2 Generating 90° Phase Shift
- 8.11.3 Image Rejection with Amplitude and Phase Mismatch
- 8.12 Alternative Mixer Designs
- 8.12.1 The Moore Mixer
- 8.12.2 Mixers with Transformer Input
- 8.12.3 Mixer with Simultaneous Noise and Power Match
- 8.12.4 Mixers with Coupling Capacitors
- 8.12.5 CMOS Mixer with Current Reuse
- 8.12.6 Integrated Passive Mixer
- 8.12.7 Subsampling Mixer
- References
- Selected Bibliography
- Chapter 9 Voltage Controlled Oscillators
- 9.1 Introduction
- 9.2 The LC Resonator
- 9.3 Adding Negative Resistance Through Feedback to the Resonator
- 9.4 Popular Implementations of Feedback to the Resonator
- 9.5 Configuration of the Amplifier (Colpitts or -Gm)
- 9.6 Analysis of an Oscillator as a Feedback System
- 9.6.1 Oscillator Closed-Loop Analysis
- 9.6.2 Capacitor Ratios with Colpitts Oscillators
- 9.6.3 Oscillator Open-Loop Analysis
- 9.6.4 Simplified Loop Gain Estimates
- 9.7 Negative Resistance Generated by the Amplifier
- 9.7.1 Negative Resistance of the Colpitts Oscillator
- 9.7.2 Negative Resistance for Series and Parallel Circuits
- 9.7.3 Negative Resistance Analysis of -Gm Oscillator
- 9.8 Comments on Oscillator Analysis
- 9.9 Basic Differential Oscillator Topologies
- 9.10 A Modified Common-Collector Colpitts Oscillator with Buffering
- 9.11 Several Refinements to the -Gm Topology Using BipolarTransistors
- 9.12 The Effect of Parasitics on the Frequency of Oscillation
- 9.13 Large-Signal Nonlinearity in the Transistor
- 9.14 Bias Shifting During Startup
- 9.15 Colpitts Oscillator Amplitude
- 9.16 -Gm Oscillator Amplitude
- 9.17 Phase Noise
- 9.17.1 Linear or Additive Phase Noise and Leeson's Formula
- 9.17.2 Some Additional Notes About Low-Frequency Noise
- 9.17.3 Nonlinear Noise
- 9.17.4 Impulse Sensitivity Noise Analysis
- 9.18 Making the Oscillator Tunable
- 9.19 Low-Frequency Phase-Noise Upconversion Reduction Techniques
- 9.19.1 Bank Switching
- 9.19.2 gm Matching and Waveform Symmetry
- 9.19.3 Differential Varactors and Differential Tuning
- 9.20 VCO Automatic-Amplitude Control Circuits
- 9.21 Supply Noise Filters in Oscillators, Example Circuit
- 9.22 Ring Oscillators
- 9.23 Quadrature Oscillators and Injection Locking
- 9.23.1 Phase Shift of Injection Locked Oscillator
- 9.23.2 Parallel Coupled Quadrature LC Oscillators
- 9.23.3 Series Coupled Quadrature Oscillators
- 9.23.4 Other Quadrature Generation Techniques
- 9.24 Other Oscillators
- 9.24.1 Multivibrators
- 9.24.2 Crystal Oscillators
- References
- Selected Bibliography
- Chapter 10 Frequency Synthesis
- 10.1 Introduction
- 10.2 Integer-N PLL Synthesizers
- 10.3 PLL Components
- 10.3.1 Voltage Controlled Oscillators (VCOs) and Dividers
- 10.3.2 Phase Detectors
- 10.3.3 The Loop Filter
- 10.4 Continuous-Time Analysis for PLL Synthesizers
- 10.4.1 Simplified Loop Equations
- 10.4.2 PLL System Frequency Response and Bandwidth
- 10.4.3 Complete Loop Transfer Function Including C2
- 10.5 Discrete Time Analysis for PLL Synthesizers
- 10.6 Transient Behavior of PLLs
- 10.6.1 PLL Linear Transient Behavior
- 10.6.2 Nonlinear Transient Behavior
- 10.6.3 Various Noise Sources in PLL Synthesizers
- 10.6.3.1 VCO Noise
- 10.6.3.4 Phase Detector Noise
- 10.6.3.5 Charge Pump Noise
- 10.6.3.6 Loop Filter Noise
- 10.6.3.7 SD Noise
- 10.6.4 In-Band and Out-of-Band Phase Noise in PLL Synthesis
- 10.7 Fractional-N PLL Frequency Synthesizers
- 10.7.1 Fractional-N Synthesizer with a Dual Modulus Prescaler
- 10.7.2 Fractional-N Synthesizer with Multimodulus Divider
- 10.7.3 Fractional-N Spurious Components
- References
- Chapter 11 Power Amplifiers
- 11.1 Introduction
- 11.2 Power Capability
- 11.3 Efficiency Calculations
- 11.4 Matching Considerations
- 11.4.1 Matching to S22* Versus Matching to Gopt
- 11.5 Class A, B, and C Amplifiers
- 11.5.1 Class B Push-Pull Arrangements
- 11.5.2 Models for Transconductance
- 11.6 Class D Amplifiers
- 11.7 Class E Amplifiers
- 11.7.1 Analysis of Class E Amplifier
- 11.7.2 Class E Equations
- 11.7.3 Class E Equations for Finite Output Q
- 11.7.4 Saturation Voltage and Resistance
- 11.7.5 Transition Time
- 11.8 Class F Amplifiers
- 11.8.1 Variation on Class F: Second-Harmonic Peaking
- 11.8.2 Variation on Class F: Quarter-Wave Transmission Line
- 11.9 Class G and H Amplifiers
- 11.10 Summary of Amplifier Classes for RF Integrated Circuits
- 11.11 AC Load Line
- 11.12 Matching to Achieve Desired Power
- 11.13 Transistor Saturation
- 11.14 Current Limits
- 11.15 Current Limits in Integrated Inductors
- 11.16 Power Combining
- 11.17 Thermal Runaway-Ballasting
- 11.18 Breakdown Voltage and Biasing
- 11.19 Packaging
- 11.20 Effects and Implications of Nonlinearity
- 11.20.1 Cross Modulation
- 11.20.2 AM-to-PM Conversion
- 11.20.3 Spectral Regrowth
- 11.20.4 Linearization Techniques
- 11.20.5 Feedforward
- 11.20.6 Feedback
- 11.20.7 Predistortion
- 11.21 CMOS Power Amplifier Examples
- References
- About the Authors
- Index
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