Resilient Control Architectures and Power Systems
Description
Resilient Control Architectures and Power Systems delivers a unique perspective on the singular challenges presented by increasing automation in society. In particular, the book focuses on the difficulties presented by the increased automation of the power grid. The authors provide a simulation of this real-life system, offering an accurate and comprehensive picture of a how a power control system works and, even more importantly, how it can fail.
The editors invite various experts in the field to describe how and why power systems fail due to cyber security threats, human error, and complex interdependencies. They also discuss promising new concepts researchers are exploring that promise to make these control systems much more resilient to threats of all kinds. Finally, resilience fundamentals and applications are also investigated to allow the reader to apply measures that ensure adequate operation in complex control systems.
Among a variety of other foundational and advanced topics, you'll learn about:
* The fundamentals of power grid infrastructure, including grid architecture, control system architecture, and communication architecture
* The disciplinary fundamentals of control theory, human-system interfaces, and cyber security
* The fundamentals of resilience, including the basis of resilience, its definition, and benchmarks, as well as cross-architecture metrics and considerations
* The application of resilience concepts, including cyber security challenges, control challenges, and human challenges
* A discussion of research challenges facing professionals in this field today
Perfect for research students and practitioners in fields concerned with increasing power grid automation, Resilient Control Architectures and Power Systems also has a place on the bookshelves of members of the Control Systems Society, the Systems, Man and Cybernetics Society, the Computer Society, the Power and Energy Society, and similar organizations.
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Persons
Craig Rieger, PhD, is Chief Control Systems Research Engineer at the Idaho National Laboratory. His research focus is on next generation resilient control systems.
Ronald Boring, PhD, is Researcher and Principal Investigator at Idaho National Laboratory. His primary research foci are on human reliability, human factors, and human-computer interaction forums.
Brian Johnson, PhD, is University Distinguished Professor and Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories Endowed Chair in Power Engineering in the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at the University of Idaho.
Timothy McJunkin is an Electrical Engineer at the Idaho National Laboratory. His primary research foci are on the development of interest resilient control of critical infrastructure, Smart Grid for renewable energy integration, and design of zero carbon microgrids.
Content
Foreword xv
Preface xvii
Acknowledgments xxiii
Editors Biography xxv
List of Contributors xxvii
Part I Introduction 1
1 Basis, Definition, and Application 3
Craig Rieger
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Definition and Application 3
References 6
2 General Use Case Introduction 7
Brian Johnson
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 Importance of Resilient Controls for Power Systems 7
2.3 Power Systems Operations and Control 7
2.4 Summary 9
References 9
Part II Infrastructure Fundamentals 11
3 Power Grid Architecture 13
Brian Johnson and Rômulo Bainy
Objectives 13
3.1 Introduction 13
3.2 Classical Power System Architectures 14
3.3 Emerging Architecture Trends 17
3.3.1 Smart Grids 17
3.3.2 Microgrids 20
3.4 Power Systems Operations and Control 22
3.5 Power Systems Planning 24
3.5.1 Modeling and Simulation 25
3.6 Measures of Performance 26
3.7 Summary 29
Further Reading 30
References 31
4 Control System Architecture 33
Thomas Baldwin
Objectives 33
4.1 Introduction 33
4.1.1 Background 33
4.1.2 Basic Generator Control Loops 34
4.1.3 Load Frequency Control 35
4.1.4 The Generator 35
4.1.5 The Load 36
4.1.6 The Turbine-Based Prime Mover 37
4.1.7 The Speed Governor 38
4.1.8 The Load Frequency Control Loop 39
4.1.9 Multiple Generators Operating with LFC 40
4.2 Automatic Generation Control 42
4.2.1 Background 42
4.2.2 The AGC in Single Area Systems 42
4.2.3 The AGC in Multi-Area Systems 43
4.2.4 The Tie Line 43
4.2.5 Tie Line Control 47
4.2.6 AGC with Generation Allocation 47
4.3 Reactive Power and Voltage Control 49
4.3.1 Background 49
4.3.2 Voltage Sensor 51
4.3.3 Amplifier 51
4.3.4 Exciter 51
4.3.5 Generator 51
4.3.6 The Voltage Control Loop 52
4.4 Excitation System Stabilizer 52
4.4.1 Rate Feedback Method 52
4.4.2 PID Controller 54
4.5 Summary 55
Further Reading 56
5 Communication Architecture 57
Chris Dyer
Objectives 57
5.1 Introduction 57
5.2 Communication Media 58
5.2.1 Copper Wire 59
5.2.1.1 Telecommunication Industry Association (TIA)/Electronic Industries Association (EIA) RS- 232 59
5.2.1.2 Twisted Pair (TIA RS-485) 59
5.2.1.3 Twisted Pair (Ethernet [10Base-T]) 60
5.2.2 Fiber-Optic Cable 60
5.2.2.1 Optical Ground Wire (OPGW) 61
5.2.2.2 All-Dielectric Self-Supporting (ADSS) Cables 62
5.2.2.3 Underground Cables 62
5.2.2.4 Splice Box 63
5.2.2.5 Fiber-optic Terminations 63
5.2.3 Patch Panel 65
5.2.3.1 Patch Cables 65
5.2.3.2 Fiber-optic Loss Calculations 66
5.2.4 Radio-Frequency (RF) Communications 66
5.2.4.1 Microwave 66
5.2.4.2 VHF/UHF Radio 68
5.2.4.3 Spread-Spectrum Communication 68
5.2.4.4 Mesh Communication Networks 68
5.2.4.5 Radio Propagation and Path Studies 68
5.2.5 Local Area Networks 68
5.2.5.1 Business Enterprise Networks 69
5.2.5.2 Operational Enterprise Networks 69
5.2.5.3 Remote Outstation Networks 73
5.2.6 Backhaul Communications 78
5.2.7 Emerging Technologies and Other Considerations 79
5.3 Summary 80
References 81
Part III Disciplinary Fundamentals 83
6 Introducing Interdisciplinary Studies 85
Craig Rieger
Objectives 85
6.1 Introduction 85
6.2 The Pathway to an Interdisciplinary Team 86
Further Reading 87
7 Cybersecurity 89
Daniel Conte de Leon, Georgios M. Makrakis, and Constantinos Kolias
Objectives 89
7.1 Introduction 89
7.2 Systems and Control Systems 90
7.2.1 Systems, Subsystems, and Analysis Boundaries 90
7.2.2 System Subjects and Objects 90
7.2.3 Subject Communication and Cyber Systems 90
7.3 Fundamental Cybersecurity Objectives: The CIA Triad 91
7.3.1 Confidentiality 91
7.3.2 Integrity 92
7.3.3 Availability 93
7.4 Fundamental Cybersecurity Techniques 93
7.4.1 Cryptography 93
7.4.1.1 Symmetric Encryption 94
7.4.1.2 Asymmetric Encryption 94
7.4.1.3 Digital Signatures 95
7.4.2 Authentication and Identity 95
7.4.3 Authorization and Access Control 96
7.4.4 Accountability 97
7.4.5 Redundancy and Replication 97
7.5 Threats, Vulnerabilities, and Attacks 97
7.5.1 Definitions 97
7.5.2 Common Types of ICS Vulnerabilities 98
7.5.2.1 Human Related 98
7.5.2.2 Software or Firmware Based 99
7.5.2.3 Policies and Procedures 99
7.5.3 Attack Stages and the Cyber Kill Chain 100
7.5.3.1 Reconnaissance 100
7.5.3.2 Weaponization 100
7.5.3.3 Delivery 101
7.5.3.4 Exploitation 101
7.5.3.5 Installation 101
7.5.3.6 Command and Control 101
7.5.3.7 Actions on Objectives 101
7.5.3.8 ICS Cyber Kill Chain 101
7.6 Secure System Design Principles 102
7.6.1 Continuous Improvement 102
7.6.2 Defense in Depth 102
7.6.3 Least Privilege 103
7.6.4 Validated Design and Implementation 103
7.6.5 Fail-safe Defaults 103
7.6.6 Separation of Duties 104
7.6.7 Psychological Acceptability 104
7.6.8 Modularization 104
7.6.9 Accountability 104
7.7 Approaches for Threat and Risk Assessment and Mitigation 105
7.7.1 Risk Framing, Legal, and Compliance 105
7.7.2 Risk Assessment 106
7.7.3 Risk Response or Treatment 106
7.7.4 Risk Monitoring 106
7.7.5 Security Management and Continuous Improvement 107
7.8 Approaches for Incident Detection and Response 107
7.8.1 Incident and Intrusion Detection 107
7.8.1.1 Host-Based IDS 108
7.8.1.2 Network-Based IDS 108
7.8.1.3 Distributed or Hybrid IDS 108
7.8.1.4 Signature Detection 108
7.8.1.5 Anomaly Detection 108
7.8.2 Incident Response 109
7.9 Summary 109
7.10 Thoughtful Questions to Ensure Comprehension 109
Further Reading 110
References 110
8 Control Theory 113
Desineni S. Naidu
Objectives 113
8.1 Introduction 113
8.1.1 Formal Statement of Optimal Control Problem 114
8.2 Deterministic Linear Systems 114
8.2.1 Open-Loop Optimal Control of Linear Systems 114
8.2.2 Closed-Loop Optimal Control of Linear Systems 115
8.2.3 Finite-Time Linear Quadratic Regulator: Time-Varying Case 116
8.2.4 Infinite-Interval Regulator System: Time-Invariant Case 116
8.2.5 Linear Quadratic Tracking System: Finite-Time Case 117
8.2.6 Gain Margin and Phase Margin 118
8.2.7 Gain Margin 118
8.2.8 Phase Margin 118
8.3 Pontryagin Principle and HJB Equation 119
8.3.1 The Hamilton-Jacobi-Bellman (HJB) Equation 119
8.4 Stochastic Linear Systems 120
8.4.1 Optimal Estimation 120
8.4.2 Optimal Control 121
8.5 Deterministic Nonlinear Systems 121
8.5.1 Finite-Horizon Regulation and Tracking for Nonlinear Systems 122
8.5.2 Finite-Horizon Regulator 122
8.5.3 Finite-Horizon Tracking for Nonlinear Systems 123
8.6 Summary 124
8.7 Thoughtful Questions to Ensure Comprehension 124
Further Reading 125
References 125
9 Human System Interfaces 127
Ronald Boring
Objectives 127
9.1 Introduction 127
9.1.1 Control Systems 127
9.1.2 History of Humans and Control Systems 128
9.1.3 Common Elements of Control System HSIs 128
9.1.4 Consequences of Poor HSIs in Control Systems 129
9.2 Basic Methods 131
9.2.1 Introduction to User-Centered Design 131
9.2.2 Design Planning 133
9.2.3 Prototyping Process 134
9.2.4 Evaluation Process 135
9.2.5 Validation versus Verification 138
9.3 Summary 140
Further Reading 142
References 142
Part IV Metrics Fundamentals 145
10 Differentiating Resilience 147
Jeffrey D. Taft
Objectives 147
10.1 Introduction 147
10.2 Conventional Views of Grid Resilience 150
10.3 Grid Characteristics 151
10.4 Grid Resilience and the Relationship to Electric Reliability 152
10.5 Characterization of Resilience 155
10.5.1 Stress and Stressors 156
10.5.2 Physical Scale 156
10.5.3 Temporal Scale 157
10.5.4 Strain 157
10.5.5 Resilience Domains 157
10.5.5.1 Stress Avoidance 157
10.5.5.2 Stress Resistance 158
10.5.5.3 Strain Adjustment 159
10.5.6 Foundational Support 160
10.6 Architectural Principles and Concepts for Resilience 160
10.6.1 All Hazards Approach 162
10.6.2 Situational Awareness 162
10.6.3 ULS Normal Failures Approach 162
10.6.4 System Hardness 162
10.6.5 Flexibility 162
10.6.6 Extensibility 163
10.6.7 Agility 163
10.6.8 Distributed Versus Centralized Systems 163
10.6.9 Buffering 163
10.6.10 Structural Resilience 163
10.6.11 Redundancy 164
10.7 Structural Resilience Quantification and Valuation 164
10.8 Summary 166
Further Reading 167
References 167
11 Cross-architecture Metrics 169
Timothy McJunkin
Objectives 169
11.1 Definition of Resilience 169
11.2 Notional Capture of Resilience Adaptive Capacity 173
11.3 Response Epoch: Adaptive Capacity on an Asset-Level Development 174
11.4 Adaptive Capacity on an Aggregated-Level Development 176
Exercises 178
Exercises 178
11.5 Cybersecurity Considerations 179
11.6 Consideration of Resist Epoch (Inertia) 182
11.7 Consideration of Recover and Restore Epochs 183
References 184
Part V Resilience Application 185
12 Introducing the Grid Game 187
Timothy McJunkin
Objectives 187
12.1 Introduction 187
12.2 Download/Install the Game 187
12.3 Play the Grid Game 188
12.4 Fundamentals 194
12.5 Evaluate the Grid Game and Players (Yourself and Others) 196
12.6 Play Together 198
12.7 Improve the Game 198
References 198
13 Cybersecurity and Resilience for the Power Grid 201
xi Qin, Kelvin Mai, Neil Ortiz, Keerthi Koneru, and Alvaro A. Cardenas
Objectives 201
13.1 Introduction 201
13.2 Operation Technologies in the Power Grid 201
13.3 Cyberattacks to the Power Grid 206
13.3.1 Attacks in Ukraine 206
13.3.2 Other Potential Attacks 208
13.4 Research Efforts 208
13.4.1 Classical Power Grid Systems 208
13.4.2 Smart Grid Systems 209
13.4.3 Grid Simulator 211
13.5 Summary 211
13.6 Thoughtful Questions to Ensure Comprehension 211
Further Reading 212
References 212
14 Control Challenges 215
Quanyan Zhu
Objectives 215
14.1 Introduction 215
14.2 Resiliency Challenges in Control Systems 216
14.3 Resiliency Design Framework 217
14.3.1 Control of Autonomous Systems in Adversarial Environment 218
14.3.2 Cross-Layer Defense for Cloud-Enabled Internet of Controlled Things 219
14.4 Resiliency for Decentralized Control Systems 221
14.5 Summary 223
14.6 Thoughtful Questions to Ensure Comprehension 223
Further Reading 224
References 225
15 Human Challenges 231
Anshul Rege
Objectives 231
15.1 Introduction 231
15.2 Experiential Learning and the Multidisciplinary Grid Game 232
15.2.1 Grid Game Case Study 232
15.2.2 Grid Operations and Cybersecurity 233
15.2.2.1 Grid Operations 233
15.2.2.2 Microgrid Stability and Generation Control System 233
15.2.2.3 Generator Inertia 233
15.2.2.4 Energy Storage 234
15.2.3 Cyber Adversarial Decision-Making 234
15.2.4 Cyber Defender Decision-Making 236
15.2.4.1 Group Dynamics and Divisions of Labor 236
15.2.4.2 Cybersecurity Preparations 236
15.2.4.3 Response to Cyberattacks 237
15.2.5 Cyber-Field Research 237
15.2.5.1 Designing and Conducting Research 237
15.2.5.2 Weaving Multiple Methods in Real Time 237
15.2.5.3 Exposure to All Phases of Research 238
15.3 Benefits of Gamifying Cybersecurity 239
15.3.1 Discipline-Specific Benefits 239
15.3.2 Challenges 239
15.4 Summary 239
Further Reading 241
References 241
Part VI Additional Design Considerations 243
16 Interdependency Analysis 245
Ryan Hruska
Objectives 245
16.1 Introduction 245
16.1.1 Dependencies and Interdependencies 245
16.1.2 Electric-Grid System Dependencies 246
16.2 Approaches to Infrastructure Dependency Analysis 247
16.2.1 Engineering Models 247
16.2.2 Systems Engineering 248
16.2.3 Geospatial Modeling 248
16.2.4 All-Hazards Analysis 249
16.3 Bulk Power Systems Interdependency Case Studies 249
16.3.1 Natural Gas Expansion 249
16.3.1.1 Natural Gas Interdependencies for Electric Generation 251
16.3.1.2 Seasonal Impacts 252
16.3.2 Water Interdependencies 253
16.4 Summary 256
Further Reading 256
References 257
17 Multi-agent Control Systems 259
Craig Rieger
Objectives 259
17.1 Introduction 259
17.1.1 What Is an Agent? 259
17.1.2 Intelligent Agent 259
17.1.3 Resilient Agent 260
17.1.4 Multi-agents and Benefit to Resilience 260
17.2 Control System Design 261
17.2.1 Tiers of Control 261
17.2.2 Decomposition of Operational Philosophy into Management and Coordination Layers 261
17.2.3 Decomposition of Operational Philosophy into Execution Layer 263
17.2.4 Data-driven Methodology for Application of Tiered Control 264
17.2.5 Cyber-Physical Degradation Assessment 264
17.3 Control System Application 267
17.3.1 Human Decision Integration into Management and Execution Layers 267
17.3.2 Distributed Control and the Execution Layer Formulation 268
17.3.3 Domain Application 269
17.4 Summary 272
Further Reading 273
An overview of a HMADS for power system applications: 273
References 273
18 Other Examples of Resilience Application 275
Meghan G. Sahakian and Eric D. Vugrin
Objectives 275
18.1 Introduction 275
18.2 Resilient Design Capacities 276
18.3 Anticipative Capacity 276
18.4 Absorptive Capacity 277
18.5 Adaptive Capacity 278
18.6 Restorative Capacity 279
18.7 Considerations for Resilient Design 279
18.8 System of Interest 280
18.9 Threat Space 281
18.10 Operational Constraints 282
18.11 Summary 282
Further Reading 283
References 283
Part VII Conclusions 285
19 Summary and Challenge for the Future 287
Craig Rieger
19.1 Introduction 287
19.2 Resilience is not a Design Layer, It is a Philosophy 287
19.3 Resilience and the Road to Autonomous Systems 288
References 288
Index 289
Preface
There are seven Parts to this Book consisting of 19 chapters:
Part I, "Introduction," provides background on the definition of a resilient control system and its application to the power system use case.
Chapter 1: This chapter outlines a course designed to introduce students from multiple science and engineering disciplines to the challenges of automation in the power system. As more automatic control systems are applied, the resulting complexity and vulnerabilities increase the need for resilient control systems. A resilient control system "maintains state awareness and an acceptable level of operational normalcy in response to disturbances" [1]. The chapter also discusses the expected outcomes of the course.
Chapter 2: The electric power system is a fundamental infrastructure that is critical to everyday life. Resilient design and resilient control of the power grid are essential. This chapter will introduce the power system as a use case to demonstrate the concepts of resilient control system design. The use case will illustrate how power systems measurements and control are implemented using autonomous control devices, both in normal operation and during larger disturbances. Later chapters will show how modern control approaches can improve system resilience. The use case also considers the human system operator interface and the importance of applying human factors to allow automation to support the human operators to ensure the human-in-the-loop can concentrate on what humans do best. The use case also allows exploration of cybersecurity and cyber-defense concerns.
Part II, "Infrastructure Fundamentals," provides a background on the design of current power system designs, including the integrated control and communications systems.
Chapter 3: Power system architectures evolved over a period of more than 100 years. The power grid from the 1960s to the late 1990s will be referred to as a "traditional architecture." This architecture was the result of 60 years of gradual evolution. Recent decades have seen accelerating changes. Emerging trends, especially those driven by the significant increase of renewable power generation sources, the evolution of power markets, and the advent of microgrids, will be described. The chapter will discuss power systems operations and control, including the roles of human operators. In addition, the power system planning process will be introduced in this chapter, followed by a discussion of measures of operational performance used for transmission and distribution operations.
Chapter 4: The most important control of electric power generation is the inherent detection of load demand changes. The first response mechanism is to keep the production and the consumption operating in balance. The second response mechanism is to maintain the voltage level within tolerance for the operation of loads. The power and voltage control at generation units is a primary problem in power-system design. The control of individual generators has evolved into a hierarchical control for the management of large interconnections. Modern energy control centers command the generation levels and supervise the flow of power across the grid.
The control of alternative current (AC) power systems is benefited by the inherent ability of electric generation to detect the load demand changes without any communication and control infrastructure. The basic response mechanism to keep the balance between electric power production and consumption comes from the turbine-generator response to the conservation of energy. The control of generator units is the primary control problem of power systems. The methods developed for control of individual generators and of large interconnections play a vital role in energy control centers.
Chapter 5: The electric power utility system has, over the past several decades, become highly dependent upon high-speed, reliable communications systems. This evolution has gone from simple human-to-human communication for the manual operation of the system to a variety of systems and subsystems. These include systems such as Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (), Distribution Automation (DA), system protection including specialized systems dependent upon communication, and more modern systems for security and surveillance, condition monitoring, asset management, and customer billing.
Part III, "Disciplinary Fundamentals," provides background on the unique disciplinary foundations that are brought to bear in this text.
Chapter 6: This chapter argues that an interdisciplinary education is critical to addressing the complex problems of today. Engineering curricula traditionally provide students with a broad education, but additional work must be done to help students appreciate the unique contributions of members of an interdisciplinary team. Because resilient solutions are not found in any one system, interdisciplinary teams are critical to success. Initiatives such as the Resilient Control Systems for the Power Grid course and the GridGame promote have been developed to help students understand multiple roles and perspectives within the resilience community.
Chapter 7: Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) or Industrial Control Systems (ICS), such as the power grid and manufacturing plants, are systems that are comprised of an array of interconnected physical, control, computing, and networking devices. Often, such systems bear vulnerabilities in either their physical or digital components, which in turn may expose them to threats and render them susceptible not only to physical but also cyberattacks. In this chapter, we will examine the main elements of security within the context of ICS/CPS and focus on its cybersecurity aspects. We will analyze the main properties of cybersecurity, namely confidentiality, integrity, and availability, and study the most important technical mechanisms that exist to ensure these properties, including cryptography, authentication, authorization, accountability, access control, and redundancy. We will describe the common types of vulnerabilities in ICS/CPS and inspect the main stages of a cyberattack. We will also provide pointers of system design principles that must be followed during the various stages of the ICS/CPS lifecycle to increase their security. Finally, the most important approaches for threat and risk mitigation will also be outlined.
Chapter 8: Control Theory addresses the feedback principles of any dynamical system where the output is fed back via a controller for comparison with the desired input to make any necessary changes to satisfy the customer specifications. Dynamical systems exist in various forms such as linear or nonlinear, continuous or discrete, deterministic or stochastic, etc. The field of control systems has a long history dating back to 300 BCE when the Greeks invented a water clock and with a formal work on governors by James Clerk Maxwell in 1868, leading to classical control era (Routh-Hurwitz, Bode, Nyquist) and modern control era (Lyapunov, Pontryagin, Kalman, etc.). This chapter presents an overview of the theory and techniques arising in modern control systems such as optimal control, and briefly touch upon nonlinear control, adaptive control, intelligent control, etc. Any engineering system to be controlled needs to have three components of modeling, analysis or performance, and synthesis or design. Optimization is a very desirable feature in day-to-day life. We like to work and use our time in an optimum manner, use resources optimally, and so on. The main objective of optimal control is to determine control signals that will cause a process (plant) to satisfy some physical constraints and at the same time extremize (maximize or minimize) a chosen performance criterion (performance index or cost function). Thus, we address optimal control systems where the theory is rooted in the field of calculus of variations developed during sixteenth and seventeenth centuries over 300 years ago [2] and flourished right into the twenty-first century.
Chapter 9: This chapter reviews user-centered design for human-system interfaces of control systems. The premise of user-centered design is that the designer must consider the user, in this case the operator of a control system. User-centered design also advocates for iteration, in which feedback from operator testing is used to improve the design of the system. This chapter walks through the importance of keeping humans in the loop in control systems design and then outlines approaches for design planning, prototyping, and evaluation. It concludes with a checklist to help the control systems engineer follow a user-centered process in the design of human-system interfaces.
Part IV, "Metrics Fundamentals," establishes a basis for measuring success in the area of resilience.
Chapter 10: The improvement of resilience in electric power systems has been of growing importance in the United States for several years. Progress has been made in various areas, but much remains to be done in terms of the basic architecture of the power grid. A limiting factor has been the lack of a connection between foundational grid architecture principles and methods on the one hand and clearly defined relationships between resilience improvement objectives and actual means for...
