Automotive Fuels Reference Book

Name: Automotive Fuels Reference Book
Brand: SAE International
Price: 380.99 EUR
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Paul Richards(Author)

SAE International (Publisher)

1st Edition

Published on 30. March 2014

868 pages

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978-0-7680-8102-2 (ISBN)

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The first two editions of this title, published by SAE International in 1990 and 1995, have been best-selling definitive references for those needing technical information about automotive fuels. This long-awaited new edition has been thoroughly revised and updated, yet retains the original fundamental fuels information that readers find so useful. This book is written for those with an interest in or a need to understand automotive fuels. Because automotive fuels can no longer be developed in isolation from the engines that will convert the fuel into the power necessary to drive our automobiles, knowledge of automotive fuels will also be essential to those working with automotive engines. Small quantities of fuel additives increasingly play an important role in bridging the gap that often exists between fuel that can easily be produced and fuel that is needed by the ever-more sophisticated automotive engine. This book pulls together in a single, extensively referenced volume, the three different but related topics of automotive fuels, fuel additives, and engines, and shows how all three areas work together. It includes a brief history of automotive fuels development, followed by chapters on automotive fuels manufacture from crude oil and other fossil sources. One chapter is dedicated to the manufacture of automotive fuels and fuel blending components from renewable sources. The safe handling, transport, and storage of fuels, from all sources, are covered. New combustion systems to achieve reduced emissions and increased efficiency are discussed, and the way in which the fuels physical and chemical characteristics affect these combustion processes and the emissions produced are included. There is also discussion on engine fuel system development and how these different systems affect the corresponding fuel requirements. Because the book is for a global market, fuel system technologies that only exist in the legacy fleet in some markets are included. The way in which fuel requirements are developed and specified is discussed. This covers test methods from simple laboratory bench tests, through engine testing, and long-term test procedures.

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Content

Intro
Contents
Preface to Third Edition
Preface to Second Edition
Preface to First Edition
Chapter 1 Automotive Fuels and Their Specification
References
Chapter 2 A History of Gasoline and Diesel Fuel Development
2.1 Gasoline
2.1.1 The Evolution of the Gasoline Engine
2.1.2 Gasoline Development
2.2 Diesel Fuel
2.2.1 The Evolution of the Diesel Engine
2.2.2 Diesel Fuel Development
References
Further Reading
Chapter 3 Manufacture of Gasoline and Diesel Fuel from Crude Oil
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Crude Oil
3.3 Influence of Product Demand Pattern on Processing
3.4 Distillation
3.5 Cracking Processes
3.5.1 Thermal Cracking
3.5.2 Visbreaking
3.5.3 Coking
3.5.4 Catalytic Cracking
3.5.5 Hydrocracking
3.5.5.1 Catalytic Distillate Dewaxing
3.5.6 Steam Cracking
3.6 Catalytic Reforming
3.7 Alkylation, Isomerization, and Polymerization
3.7.1 Alkylation
3.7.2 Isomerization
3.7.3 Polymerization
3.8 Finishing Processes
3.8.1 Caustic Washing
3.8.2 Merox Treating
3.8.3 Hydrodesulfurization
3.8.3.1 Sources of Hydrogen
3.9 Oxygenated Gasoline Components
3.9.1 Alcohols
3.9.2 Ethers
3.10 Gasoline Blending
3.10.1 Blending Operations
3.10.2 Blending Calculations
3.10.3 Octane Blending
3.10.4 Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP) Blending
3.10.5 ASTM Distillation Blending
3.11 Diesel Fuel Blending
3.11.1 Diesel Blending Operations
3.11.2 Diesel Blend Calculations
References
Further Reading
Chapter 4 Manufacture of Gasoline and Diesel Fuel from Non-Crude Oil Fossil Sources
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Coal
4.2.1 Syn-Gas Production
4.2.2 F-T Synthesis
4.2.3 Product Upgrading
4.2.3.1 Hydrocracking
4.2.3.2 Oligomerization
4.2.3.3 Catalytic Reforming
4.2.3.4 Alcohol Dehydration
4.3 Gas to Liquids
4.4 Gaseous Fuels
4.4.1 Gaseous Fuel Supply
4.4.2 Gaseous Fuel Composition and Properties
4.4.2.1 Gaseous Fuel Components
4.4.2.2 Wobbe Index and Fuel Metering
4.4.2.3 Propensity to Knock: Octane and Methane Numbers
4.4.2.4 Effect of Gaseous Fuel Composition on Emissions
4.4.3 Gaseous Fuels Dispensing and Storage
4.4.3.1 Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)
4.4.3.2 Recommended Practice for CNG: SAE J1616
4.4.3.3 LNG Dispensing and Storage
4.4.3.4 LPG Dispensing and Storage
4.4.4 Gaseous-Fuel Engine Technology
4.4.4.1 Fuel Metering Systems
4.4.4.2 Spark-Ignition Engines
4.4.4.3 Dual-Fuel (Compression Ignition) Engines
4.5 Oil Sands Fuel
4.5.1 Oil Sands Extraction and Processing
4.5.1.1 Surface Mining
4.5.1.2 Subterranean Recovery
4.5.1.3 In Situ Processing
4.6 Oil Shale Fuel
4.6.1 Oil Shale Mining and Processing
4.6.2 In Situ Retorting
References
Further Reading
Chapter 5 Manufacture of Gasoline and Diesel Fuel from Renewable Sources
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Minimally Processed Vegetable Oil
5.3 Bio-Ethanol
5.3.1 Ethanol from Sugar Crops
5.3.2 Ethanol from Grain Crops
5.3.3 Lignocellulosic Ethanol
5.4 Biodiesel Fuel
5.5 Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil
References
Further Reading
Chapter 6 Storage, Distribution, and Handling of Gasoline and Diesel Fuel
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Safety Considerations for Storage and Handling
6.2.1 Flash Point
6.2.2 Electrical Conductivity
6.3 Health and Environmental Effects of Gasoline
6.3.1 Health Aspects
6.3.1.1 Inhalation
6.3.1.2 Ingestion
6.3.1.3 Aspiration
6.3.1.4 Skin Contact
6.3.1.5 Eye Contact
6.3.2 Exposure Limits
6.3.3 Ecotoxicity
6.3.4 Disposal
6.4 Health and Environmental Effects of Diesel Fuel
6.4.1 Health Aspects
6.4.1.1 Inhalation
6.4.1.2 Ingestion
6.4.1.3 Aspiration
6.4.1.4 Skin Contact
6.4.1.5 Eye Contact
6.4.2 Exposure Limits
6.4.3 Ecotoxicity
6.4.4 Disposal
6.5 Influences on Product Quality during Distribution
6.5.1 Sea Transport
6.5.2 Pipeline
6.5.3 Road and Rail
6.6 Influences on Product Quality during Storage
6.6.1 Water Contamination in Tankage
6.6.2 Microbiological Contamination
6.6.3 Sludge in Tankage
6.6.4 Evaporative Losses
6.6.5 Oxidation
6.7 Considerations with Oxygenated Blends
6.7.1 Environmental Aspects of Fuels Containing MTBE
6.7.2 Water Sensitivity of Alcohol Blends
6.7.3 Safety and Fire Protection for Alcohol Blends
6.7.4 Oxidation Stability of Biodiesel
6.7.5 Cold Stability of Biodiesel
References
Further Reading
Chapter 7 Positive Ignition Engine Combustion Process
7.1 Normal Combustion
7.1.1 Mixture Requirements
7.1.2 The Combustion Process
7.2 Spark Knock
7.2.1 How Spark Knock Occurs
7.3 Measurement of Gasoline Antiknock Quality
7.3.1 Research and Motor Octane Number
7.3.2 Road Octane Number
7.3.3 Octane Index and Modern Engines
7.3.4 Influence of Chemical Structure on Octane Quality
7.4 Antiknock Additives
7.4.1 Lead Alkyls
7.4.2 MMT-Methylcyclopentadienyl Manganese Tricarbonyl
7.4.3 Other Metallic Antiknocks
7.4.4 Organic Antiknocks
7.4.5 Oxygenated Blending Components
7.5 Octane Blending
7.6 Octane Requirements of Vehicles and Engines
7.6.1 Vehicles with Knock Sensor Systems
7.6.2 Data Analysis
7.6.3 Octane Rating of Fuels Using Vehicles or Engines
7.6.4 Engine and Other Factors That Influence Octane Requirements
7.7 Octane Requirement Increase (ORI)
7.8 Other Abnormal Combustion Phenomena
7.8.1 Pre-Ignition
7.8.1.1 Fuel Quality Effects on Pre-Ignition
7.8.1.2 Deposits and Pre-Ignition
7.8.1.3 Inherent Fuel Resistance to Pre-Ignition
7.8.2 Misfire
7.8.3 Run-On
References
Further Reading
Chapter 8 Gasoline Engine Design and Influence of Fuel Characteristics
8.1 Introduction
8.2 The Gasoline Engine
8.2.1 Otto Cycle
8.2.2 The Atkinson Cycle
8.2.3 The Miller Cycle
8.3 Vehicle Fuel Systems
8.3.1 The Fuel Metering System
8.3.1.1 Carburetors
8.3.1.2 Throttle Body Fuel Injection
8.3.1.3 Port Fuel Injection
8.3.1.4 Direct Fuel Injection
8.3.1.4.1 Direct Injection Strategies
8.3.1.4.2 Direct Injection Injector Technology
8.3.2 The Fuel Tank and Pump
8.4 Ignition Systems
8.5 Combustion and Exhaust Emission Control Systems
8.5.1 Combustion Chamber Configuration
8.5.1.1 Combustion Chamber Shape
8.5.1.2 Valve Layouts
8.5.2 The Effect of Air-to-Fuel Ratio
8.5.3 Exhaust Aftertreatment Systems
8.5.3.1 Oxidation Catalysts
8.5.3.2 Three-Way Catalysts
8.5.3.3 Lean NOX Traps
8.5.3.4 Particulate Filters
References
Further Reading
Chapter 9 Gasoline Volatility
9.1 Measurement of Gasoline Volatility
9.1.1 Vapor Pressure
9.1.2 Reid Vapor Pressure
9.1.3 Dry Vapor Pressure and DVPE
9.1.4 Distillation by ASTM D86
9.1.5 Vapor-Liquid Ratio
9.1.6 Effect of Oxygenated Blending Components
9.2 Cold Starting
9.2.1 Different Fuel System Technologies
9.2.1.1 Carbureted Engines
9.2.1.2 Port Fuel Injected Engines
9.2.1.3 Direct Injection Engines
9.2.2 Relevant Specifications
9.3 Cold Weather Driveability
9.3.1 Cold Weather Driveability Test Procedures
9.3.1.1 U.S. Test Procedures
9.3.1.2 European Procedures
9.3.2 Relevant Fuel Parameters
9.3.2.1 U.S. Driveability Index
9.3.2.2 European and Japanese Indices
9.4 Hot Weather Driveability
9.4.1 Hot Weather Driveability Testing
9.4.2 Hot Weather Driveability Problems
9.4.2.1 Fuel Weathering
9.4.2.2 Vapor Lock
9.4.2.3 Carburetor Percolation
9.4.2.4 Carburetor Foaming
9.4.3 Hot Weather Fuel Parameter Specification
9.5 Evaporative Emissions from Vehicles
9.5.1 Measuring Evaporative Emissions
9.5.2 Reducing Evaporative Emissions
9.6 Influence of Fuel Volatility on Exhaust Emissions
9.7 Intake System Icing
9.7.1 Throttle Icing in Carbureted and Throttle Body Injected Engines
9.7.2 Throttle Icing in Multipoint Fuel Injected Engines
9.8 Oil Dilution and Combustion Chamber Deposits
9.9 Fuel Economy and Gasoline Volatility
References
Further Reading
Chapter 10 Influence of Gasoline Composition on Stability, Gum Formation, and Engine Deposits
10.1 The Influence of Gasoline Composition on Stability
10.1.1 Measurement of Stability
10.1.1.1 Measurement of Oxidation Stability by Induction Period Method
10.1.1.2 Automated Measurement of Induction Period
10.1.1.3 Measurement of Gum Content by Jet Evaporation
10.1.1.4 Measurement of Oxidation Stability by Potential Residue Method
10.1.1.5 Measurement of Long-Term Stability
10.2 Deposit Formation in Engines Due to Gasoline Oxidation
10.2.1 Deposit Formation in the Fuel Tank and Fuel Lines
10.2.2 Deposit Formation in Fuel Injectors and Carburetors
10.2.2.1 Chrysler 2.2
10.2.2.2 Other Vehicle-Based Injector Deposit Test
10.2.2.3 CRC Injector Deposit Bench Test
10.2.3 Deposit Formation in the Inlet Manifold, Ports, and on Valves
10.2.3.1 Opel Kadett Test
10.2.3.2 Mercedes-Benz M102E Test
10.2.3.3 BMW 318i Test
10.2.3.4 Mercedes-Benz M111 Test
10.2.3.5 Ford 2.3 Test
10.2.3.6 Other Engine Tests
10.2.3.7 Bench Simulator Rigs
10.2.3.8 Valve Stick Test
10.2.4 Combustion Chamber Deposits
10.2.4.1 Deposit Formation in Direct Injection Gasoline Engines
10.2.4.1.1 Direct Injection Injector Deposits
10.2.4.1.2 Direct Injection Chamber Deposits
10.2.4.2 Combustion Chamber Deposit Interference
References
Chapter 11 Gasoline Additives
11.1 Additives to Improve Oxidation Stability
11.1.1 Antioxidants
11.1.2 Metal Deactivators
11.2 Additives Used in Gasoline Distribution
11.2.1 Dyes and Markers
11.2.2 Corrosion Inhibitors
11.2.3 Biocides
11.2.4 Anti-Static Additives
11.2.5 Drag Reducing Agents
11.2.6 Demulsifiers and Dehazers
11.3 Additives Used to Protect Engines and Fuel Systems
11.3.1 Corrosion Inhibitors
11.3.2 Anti-icing Additives
11.3.3 Deposit Control Additives (DCAs)
11.3.3.1 Carburetor Cleanliness Additives
11.3.3.2 Port Fuel Injector Anti-Fouling Additives
11.3.3.3 Additives to Control Inlet Manifold, Inlet Valve, and Port Deposits
11.3.3.4 Additives for Direct Injection Injector Cleanliness
11.3.3.5 Combustion Chamber Deposit Control
11.3.4 Factory Fill Additives
11.4 Additives That Influence Combustion
11.4.1 Antiknock Additives
11.4.2 Anti-ORI Additives
11.4.3 Anti-Pre-Ignition and Anti-Misfire Additives
11.4.4 Spark-Aider Additives
11.4.5 Additives for Improving Fuel Distribution between Cylinders
11.4.6 Anti-Valve-Seat Recession Additives
11.5 Additives That Improve Lubricant Performance
11.5.1 Upper Cylinder Lubricants
11.5.2 Anti-Wear Additives
11.5.3 Friction Modifiers
11.5.4 Anti-Sludge Additives
11.6 Multi-Functional Additive Packages
References
Chapter 12 Other Gasoline Specification and Non-Specification Properties
12.1 Density
12.2 Heat of Combustion
12.3 Composition
12.3.1 Hydrocarbon Composition
12.3.2 Elemental Composition
12.3.2.1 Lead
12.3.2.2 Manganese
12.3.2.3 Phosphorus
12.3.2.4 Sulfur
12.3.3 Oxygenates
12.3.4 Water
12.4 Flash Point
12.5 Surface Tension
12.6 Viscosity
12.7 Conductivity
12.8 Corrosivity
12.9 Freezing Point
12.10 Appearance
References
Chapter 13 Influence of Gasoline Characteristics on Emissions
13.1 Development of Emissions Legislation and Fuel Quality Regulations
13.1.1 Development in the United States
13.1.2 Development in Europe
13.1.3 Development in Japan
13.1.4 Development in the Rest of the World
13.2 The Introduction of Reformulated Gasolines
13.2.1 The Adoption of RFG in the United States
13.2.2 RFG Specifications
13.2.3 European Experience of RFGs
13.2.4 The Fuel and Emissions Relationship Going Forward
13.3 The Influence of Gasoline Sulfur Content on Emissions
13.3.1 The Effect of Sulfur on Tail-Pipe Emissions
13.3.2 The Effect of Sulfur on Durability of Aftertreatment Systems
13.3.3 The Effect of Sulfur on Onboard Diagnostics
13.4 The Influence of Gasoline Hydrocarbon Composition on Emissions
13.4.1 Aromatics
13.4.1.1 Aromatics and Regulated Exhaust Emissions
13.4.1.2 Aromatics and Air Toxins
13.4.2 Olefins
13.5 The Influence of Gasoline Distillation Characteristics on Emissions
13.5.1 Front-End Volatility
13.5.2 Mid-Range Volatility
13.5.3 Back-End Volatility
References
Further Reading
Chapter 14 Racing Fuels
14.1 General Considerations
14.1.1 Safety
14.1.2 Volatility
14.1.3 Resistance to Detonation and Pre-Ignition
14.1.4 Flammability Limits
14.1.5 Flame Speed
14.1.6 Heat of Vaporization
14.1.7 Density
14.1.8 Heating Value
14.1.9 Stoichiometry
14.1.10 Specific Energy
14.2 Hydrocarbon Racing Fuels
14.2.1 Historical Perspective
14.2.2 Current Perspective
14.3 Alcohols as Racing Fuels
14.4 Antiknock Components
14.5 Nitro-Paraffins as Racing Fuels
14.6 Fuel Additives
14.6.1 Hydrazine
14.6.2 Antiknock Additives
14.6.3 Stabilizers
14.6.4 Deposit Control Additives
14.6.5 Dyes and Markers
14.6.6 Static Dissipaters
14.7 Nitrous Oxide as an Oxidant for Racing Fuels
References
Chapter 15 The Diesel Engine Combustion Process
15.1 The Diesel Combustion Process
15.1.1 Ignition Delay Period
15.1.2 Pre-Mixed Burning Period
15.1.3 Diffusion Burning Period
15.1.4 Tail-End Burning Period
15.2 Fuel Properties Influencing Combustion
15.2.1 Ignition Quality
15.2.1.1 Measurement of Cetane Number
15.2.1.2 Measurement of Derived Cetane Number
15.2.1.3 Measurement of Cetane Index
15.3 Emissions Characteristics of Diesel Combustion
15.3.1 Smoke and Particulates
15.3.2 Oxides of Nitrogen
References
Further Reading
Chapter 16 Diesel Engine Design and Influence of Fuel Characteristics
16.1 Introduction
16.2 The Diesel Compression Ignition Engine
16.2.1 Direct Injection
16.2.2 Indirect Injection
16.2.3 Other Considerations
16.3 Diesel Vehicle Fuel Systems
16.3.1 Strainers, Filters, and Separators
16.3.2 Transfer or Lift Pumps
16.3.3 Injection Systems
16.3.3.1 Pump-Line-Nozzle Systems
16.3.3.1.1 In-Line Pumps
16.3.3.1.2 Rotary Distributor Pumps
16.3.3.1.3 Electronic Control
16.3.3.2 Unit Injector Systems
16.3.3.3 High-Pressure Common Rail Systems
16.4 Exhaust Aftertreatment
16.4.1 Diesel Oxidation Catalysts
16.4.2 Diesel Particulate Filters
16.4.2.1 Deep Bed Filters
16.4.2.2 Wall Flow Filters
16.4.2.3 Partial Filtration
16.4.2.4 DPF Regeneration
16.4.3 NOX Reduction Systems
16.4.3.1 Selective Catalytic Reduction
16.4.3.2 Hydrocarbon-Based NOX Reduction
16.4.4 Integrated Systems
16.5 Influence of Fuel Properties on Engine Systems Performance
16.5.1 Influence of Fuel Density
16.5.2 Influence of Diesel Fuel Volatility
16.5.3 Influence of Diesel Fuel Viscosity
16.5.4 Influence of Diesel Fuel Composition
References
Further Reading
Chapter 17 Diesel Fuel Low-Temperature Characteristics
17.1 Diesel Fuel Low-Temperature Properties
17.1.1 Cloud Point
17.1.2 Wax Appearance Point
17.1.3 Pour Point
17.1.4 Significance of Cloud Point and Pour Point
17.1.5 Cold Filter Plugging Point
17.1.6 Low-Temperature Flow Test
17.1.7 Simulated Filter Plugging Point (SFPP)
17.1.8 Cold Soak Filtration Test
17.2 Additives to Improve Cold Weather Performance
17.2.1 Wax Crystal Modifiers (WCM)
17.2.2 Pour Point Depressants
17.2.3 Flow Improvers
17.2.4 Cloud Point Depressants
17.2.5 Wax Anti-Settling Additives (WASA)
17.2.6 Mechanism of Wax Crystal Modification
17.2.7 Factors Influencing Choice of Wax Modifier Additive
17.2.8 The Incorporation of Biodiesel
17.3 Measurement of Diesel Fuel Low-Temperature Performance
17.3.1 Selection of Field Test Site
17.3.2 Procedure for Low-Temperature Testing
17.3.2.1 Cold Startability
17.3.2.2 Cold Operability
17.3.3 Fuel Storage
17.3.4 Vehicle Instrumentation
17.3.5 Preparation of Test Vehicles
17.3.6 Operational Procedure
17.3.7 Climate Chamber Testing
17.3.8 Interpretation of Results
17.3.9 Low-Temperature Test Experience
17.3.10 Reducing Sensitivity to Waxing Problems by Vehicle Design
17.3.11 Experience with Modified Fuel Systems
References
Chapter 18 Influence of Diesel Fuel Composition on Stability and Engine Deposits
18.1 The Influence of Diesel Fuel Composition on Stability
18.1.1 Petroleum Fuel Composition Effects
18.1.2 Biodiesel Composition Effects
18.1.3 Measurement of Stability
18.1.3.1 Measurement of Storage Stability
18.1.3.2 Measurement of Thermal Stability
18.1.3.3 Measurement of Oxidation Stability
18.2 Engine Deposits
18.2.1 Deposit Formation in the Fuel Tank, Lines, and Filters
18.2.2 Internal Diesel Injector Deposits (IDID)
18.2.2.1 Carbonaceous Deposits
18.2.2.2 Metal Salts
18.2.2.3 Lacquer Deposits
18.2.2.4 IDID Test Methods
18.2.2.4.1 CRC Test Development
18.2.2.4.2 CEC Test Development
18.2.3 External Injectors Deposits
18.2.3.1 Peugeot XUD-9 Test Method
18.2.3.2 Cummins L10 Test Method
18.2.3.3 Peugeot XUD-9A Test Method
18.2.3.4 Peugeot DW10 Test Method
References
Chapter 19 Diesel Fuel Additives
19.1 Additives to Improve Fuel Stability
19.2 Additives Used to Aid Distribution and Handling of Diesel Fuel
19.2.1 Additives to Aid Cold Flow Performance
19.2.2 Corrosion Inhibitors
19.2.3 Static Dissipater Additives
19.2.4 Dehazers and Demulsifiers
19.2.5 Biocides
19.2.6 Anti-Foamants
19.2.7 Odor Masks and Odorants
19.2.8 Dyes and Markers
19.2.9 Drag Reducers
19.2.10 Anti-Icers
19.3 Additives Used to Protect Engines and Fuel Systems
19.3.1 Deposit Control Additives
19.3.2 Lubricity Additives
19.4 Additives That Influence Combustion
19.4.1 Ignition Improvers
19.4.2 Combustion Improvers
19.4.3 FBCs for DPF Regeneration
19.5 Multi-Functional Additive Packages
References
Chapter 20 Other Diesel Specification and Non-Specification Properties
20.1 Diesel Fuel Stability
20.2 Corrosivity
20.3 Ignition Quality
20.4 Lubricity
20.4.1 Evaluation of Different Test Methods
20.4.2 Ball on Three Seats Method (BOTS)
20.4.3 Ball-On-Cylinder Lubricity Evaluator (BOCLE)
20.4.4 High-Frequency Reciprocating Rig (HFRR)
20.5 Water and Sediment Content
20.6 Ash Content
20.7 Carbon Residue
20.8 Density
20.9 Heating Value
20.10 Flash Point
20.11 Electrical Conductivity
20.12 Appearance and Color
References
Chapter 21 Influence of Diesel Fuel Characteristics on Emissions
21.1 Development of Emissions Legislation and Fuel Quality Regulations
21.1.1 Development in the United States
21.1.1.1 California Risk Reduction Program for Diesel PM
21.1.2 Development in Europe
21.1.2.1 Measurement of PN
21.1.3 Development in Japan
21.1.4 Development in the Rest of the World
21.2 Diesel Fuel Cetane Number and Emissions
21.2.1 Effect of CN under Fully Warm Operating Conditions
21.2.1.1 Pre-1990 Studies
21.2.1.2 Studies During the 1990s
21.2.1.3 Studies in the 21st Century
21.2.2 Effect of CN under Cold Start Condition
21.2.3 Natural and Improved CN
21.3 The Influence of Diesel Fuel Physical Characteristics on Emissions
21.3.1 Diesel Fuel Density Effects
21.3.1.1 Density Emissions Correlations
21.3.1.2 The Influence of Fuel Density on Emission Control Systems
21.3.2 The Influence of Viscosity
21.3.3 Diesel Fuel Distillation Characteristics and Emissions
21.4 The Influence of Chemical Composition of Diesel Fuel on Emissions
21.4.1 Diesel Fuel Sulfur Effects on Emissions
21.4.1.1 The Effects of Fuel Sulfur on Tailpipe Emissions
21.4.1.2 Effect of Sulfur on Diesel Aftertreatment Systems
21.4.2 The Influence of Aromatic Content on Emissions
21.4.2.1 Effect of Total Aromatics Content on Emissions
21.4.2.2 Effect of Fuel Di-and Tri-Aromatic Content on Emissions
21.4.3 The Influence of Oxygenate Content on Emissions
21.4.3.1 The Influence of Biodiesel on Exhaust Aftertreatment Systems
References
Further Reading
Chapter 22 The Kinetically Controlled Compression Ignition Engine and Combustion Process
22.1 Brief History of Kinetically Controlled Combustion
22.2 The Low-Temperature Combustion Process
22.3 Low-Temperature Combustion Engines
22.3.1 The CAI Gasoline Engine
22.3.2 The PCCI Diesel Engine
22.3.3 The RCCI Engine
22.4 Fuel Effects on Kinetically Controlled Compression Ignition
22.4.1 Fuel Effects on CAI Engine Performance
22.4.2 Fuel Effects on PCCI Engine Performance
22.4.3 Fuel Effects on RCCI Engine Performance
References
Further Reading
Chapter 23 Future Trends and Alternative Fuels
23.1 Fossil Fuel Price and Security of Supply
23.1.1 Crude Oil
23.1.2 Other Oil Sources
23.1.3 Coal
23.1.4 Natural Gas
23.2 Renewable Fuel Price and Availability
23.2.1 Bio-Ethanol Feedstocks
23.2.2 Biodiesel Feedstocks
23.3 Environmental Considerations and Legislation
23.4 Vehicle Technology Advances
23.4.1 Gasoline Engine Development
23.4.2 Diesel Engine Development
23.4.3 Hybrid Electric Vehicles
23.4.4 Hydrogen-Powered Vehicles
23.4.4.1 Hydrogen as a Fuel for Spark Ignition Engines
23.4.4.2 Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles
23.5 Alternative Fuels
23.5.1 Dimethyl Ether as a Fuel for Diesel Engines
23.5.2 Other Alternative Fuels
References
Further Reading
Appendix 1 Introduction to Fuel Chemistry
1.1 Hydrocarbons
1.2 The Alkanes or Paraffins, CnH2n+2
1.3 The Cycloparaffins or Naphthenes, CnH2n
1.4 The Alkenes or Olefins, CnH2n
1.5 The Aromatic Hydrocarbons, CnH2n-6
1.6 Combustion of Hydrocarbons
1.7 Monohydric Alcohols, CnH2n+1OH
1.8 Alkyl Ethers, (CnH2n+1)2O
1.9 Combustion of Oxygenates
Appendix 2 Physical Properties of Hydrocarbons
Appendix 3 Worldwide Fuel Charter Recommendations
Test methods for gasoline properties
Gasoline specifications-recommended limits
Test methods for diesel fuel properties
Diesel fuel specifications-recommended limits
Appendix 4 Composition of Biodiesel from Different Feedstocks
Appendix 5 Material Safety Data Sheets
Appendix 6 Abbreviations and Acronyms
Appendix 7 Glossary of Terms
Index
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System requirements

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Automotive Fuels Reference Book

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System requirements