Introduction to Humans in Engineered Systems
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Preface xiii
Part I Historical Perspective 1
References 4
1 Natural and Engineered Systems 7
Purposeful Design 7
User-Centered Design 8
Design against Failure 10
Summary 12
References 12
2 Historical Roots 14
Engineering for Physical Limitations 14
Size 14
Strength 17
Speed and Efficiency 17
Engineering for Human Cognition 21
Writing 21
Number Systems 24
Point-and-Click Interfaces 25
The Modern Era 25
Aviation 26
The Digital Computer 28
A Fractured Field 30
Human Factors/Ergonomics 31
Human-Computer Interaction 33
Human-Systems Integration 33
Summary 34
References 34
3 The Current Practice 37
Aerospace 38
The Human-System Specialist in Aerospace 39
Medicine 40
The Human-System Specialist in Medicine 42
Automotive Industry 42
The Human-System Specialist in the Automotive Industry 43
Computer Industry 43
The Human-System Specialist in Human-Computer Interfaces 44
Summary 44
References 45
Part II The Environment 49
References 51
4 The Varied Nature of Environments 53
Static vs. Dynamic Domains 54
Sources of Difficulty in Static Environments 56
Modes 56
Comprehension 57
Sources of Difficulty in Dynamic Environments 58
Lag 58
Plant Dynamics 59
Control Order 63
Perturbation and Noise 66
Internal vs. External Pacing 67
Error Tolerance 68
Summary 69
References 69
5 The Social Context 71
Methodological Consequences of Group Size 74
Length/Variability of Response Times 74
Methods of Study and Analysis 75
Communication and Coordination Consequences of Group Size 76
Summary 79
References 80
6 Analysis Techniques 81
Modeling Static Environments: Finite State Representations 82
Modeling Dynamic Environments 84
Control Theory 85
Signal Detection Theory 88
Task Analysis 93
Measuring Complexity Using Information Theory 94
Modeling Throughput Using Queuing Theory 97
Summary 99
References 99
Part III The Human Element 101
References 103
7 Determinants of Human Behavior 105
The Human Factor 106
Structure and Content 107
Levels of Analysis 109
Summary 111
References 111
8 The Structure of Human Information Processing 113
Processing Stages 115
Cognition and Action 117
Cognition and Goal-Directed Behavior 119
Response Selection 119
The Hick-Hyman Law 120
Compatibility 123
The Nature of Capacity Limitations 125
Summary 126
References 126
9 Acquiring Information 127
Sensory Processing 127
Vision 127
Illumination 128
Reflectance of the Surface 128
Reflectance of Surrounding Surfaces 131
Anatomy of the Eye 131
Visual Acuity 132
Acuity and Retinal Eccentricity 135
Adaptation 138
Saccadic Eye Movements 139
Temporal Vision 141
Masking and Crowding 141
The What and Where of Vision 142
Summary 143
Color Vision 143
CIE Color Space 144
The Uses of Color 147
Audition 147
The Human Auditory System 149
Auditory Perception 150
Pitch, Masking, and Critical Bands 152
Auditory Localization 153
Auditory-Visual Cross-Modal Interactions 154
Sensory Processing Summary 157
Attention 157
Selective Attention 157
The Cocktail Party Phenomenon and Echoic Memory 158
Iconic Memory in Vision 159
Resource and Data Limits 160
The Capacity of Attention 163
The Processing of Unattended Items 163
Controlling Attention 164
Visual Search 164
Visual Monitoring 170
Information Foraging Theory 170
Summary 171
References 172
10 Central Processing Limitations on Multitasking 181
Bottleneck Theories 181
Central Bottleneck Theory 182
The Psychological Refractory Period Paradigm 183
Central Bottleneck Theory and Driving 185
Central Bottleneck Theory and Human-Computer Interaction 187
Fitts' Law 189
Project Ernestine 190
Capacity Theories 191
Complexity in Resource Allocation 191
Allocation of Limited-Capacity Resources 192
Multiple Resource Theory 195
Using Multiple Resource Theory 198
Applications of Single-Channel and Multiple Resource Theories 200
Timesharing 201
Task-Switching Costs 201
Cognitive Operations in Task Switching 202
Timesharing Strategies and the Control of Processing 203
Speed-Accuracy Trade-Off 204
Optimal Strategies 205
Summary 205
References 206
11 Memory 210
Types of Memories 210
Short-Term Memory 211
Working Memory 213
Long-Term Memory 215
Episodic versus Semantic Memory 217
Retaining and Forgetting Information 218
Interference 220
Forgetting to Remember to Remember: Prospective Memory 223
Retrieving Information 224
Short-Term Memory Retrieval 225
Long-Term Memory Retrieval 226
Summary 230
References 231
12 Decision Making 236
Anatomy of a Decision 236
Normative Approaches to Decision Making 239
Rational Decisions 240
Bayes Theorem 240
Utility and Expected Value 242
Nonoptimality of Human Decisions 243
Failure to Consider Base Rate Information 244
Judging Numerical Quantities 245
Failure to Appreciate Statistical Properties 245
Cognitive Approaches to Decision Making 246
Confirmation Bias 247
Framing Effects 248
Overconfidence 249
Heuristics in Human Decisions 250
Availability 250
Representativeness 251
Anchoring 253
The Use of Heuristics 254
Other Influences on Decision Making 254
Process Models of Human Decision Making 256
Naturalistic Decision Making 259
Relationship between Decision-Making Models and Systems Engineering 262
Summary 263
References 263
Part IV Human-System Integration 267
References 269
13 A Case Study in Human-System Performance: The Exxon Valdez 271
An Account of the Grounding of the Tankship Exxon Valdez 272
The Nature of the Error 274
Mode Errors 274
Control Dynamics and Detection Times 276
Time Estimation 277
Decision Biases 278
Multitasking 279
Summary 281
References 282
14 Human Error 284
Human Error and System Error 284
The Nature of Human Error 285
Theories of Human Error 288
Error Types 289
Error Forms 290
Situation Awareness 292
Situation Awareness in Individuals 292
Situation Awareness of Teams 294
Cognitive Processing in Establishing Situation Awareness 295
Measuring Situation Awareness 296
Inferring Situation Awareness from Eye Fixation Patterns 299
Summary of Situation Awareness 300
Summary 301
References 301
15 Contextual Factors Affecting
Human-System Performance 307
Workload 307
Defining and Measuring Workload 308
Performance-Based Metrics 308
Cognitive Task Analysis 313
Physiological Indices of Workload 316
Subjective Ratings of Workload 318
Workload Summary 320
Interruption 320
Operator State 323
Fatigue 324
Sleep Deprivation and Circadian Rhythms 326
Summary 327
References 327
16 The Role of Automation in Human-System Performance 339
Using Automated Devices 341
Levels of Automation 343
A Taxonomy of Automation Levels 345
Automation as a Decision Support Aid 348
Automation and System Safety 352
Summary 354
References 354
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Alarms and Alerts 360
Sensory Characteristics of Good Alerts and Alarms 361
Design Considerations in Alerts and Alarms 362
Human Factors Issues with Alerts and Alarms 363
Information Displays 364
Transform Information to Take Advantage of Human Perceptual Systems 365
Match Perceptual Cues to the Nature of the Judgment 365
Choose Perceptual Depictions Compatible with Internal Representations 367
Provide Feedback 371
Use Presentation Techniques That Minimize Demand for Focal Visual Attention 372
Use Perceptual Distinctions That Match Visual and Auditory Capabilities 372
Apply the Proximity Compatibility Principle 374
Create Barriers 374
Summary 377
References 377
Index 383
