Engineering Informatics
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Content
Preface to the First Edition xvii
Preface to the Second Edition xxi
1 Fundamental Logic and the Definition of Engineering Tasks 1
1.1 Three Types of Inference 1
1.2 Engineering Tasks 3
1.3 A Model of Information and Tasks 5
1.4 Another Task Definition 8
1.5 The Five Orders of Ignorance 9
1.6 Summary 9
Exercises 10
References 10
2 Algorithms and Complexity 11
2.1 Algorithms and Execution Time of Programs 12
2.1.1 Program Execution Time versus Task Size 12
2.2 'Big Oh' Notation 14
2.2.1 Definition of the Big Oh Notation 15
2.2.2 Big Oh and Tightness of Bound 16
2.2.3 Classification of Functions 20
2.2.4 Examples 21
2.2.5 Tractability and Algorithm Optimality 30
2.3 Practical Methods for Determining the Complexity of Algorithms 30
2.4 P, NP and NP-Completeness 34
2.4.1 Zero-One Integer Programming (ZOIP) Problem 35
2.4.2 Classes of NP-Complete Problems 36
2.5 Summary 37
Exercises 37
Reference 40
Further Reading 40
3 Data Structures 41
3.1 Introduction 41
3.2 Definitions 42
3.3 Derived Data Types 42
3.3.1 Examples of Derived Data Types 43
3.3.2 User-Defined Data Types 45
3.4 Abstract Data Types 46
3.4.1 Linked Lists 47
3.4.2 Graphs 50
3.4.3 Trees 52
3.4.4 Stacks 56
3.4.5 Queues 60
3.5 An Example: Conceptual Structural Design of Buildings 63
3.6 Network Science 70
3.6.1 Types of Networks 71
3.7 Hashing 73
3.8 Summary 74
Exercises 74
Further Reading 79
4 Object Representation and Reasoning 81
4.1 Introduction 81
4.2 Grouping Data and Methods 82
4.3 Definitions and Basic Concepts 83
4.3.1 Classes and Objects 83
4.3.2 Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) 84
4.3.3 Messages 84
4.4 Important Characteristics of Objects 84
4.4.1 Encapsulation of Data and Methods 84
4.4.2 Message-Passing Mechanism 85
4.4.3 Abstraction Hierarchy 86
4.4.4 Secondary Features of Object Representation 88
4.4.5 Decomposition versus Abstraction 89
4.5 Applications Outside Programming 90
4.5.1 Knowledge Representation 91
4.5.2 User Interfaces 91
4.5.3 Off-the-Shelf Components 91
4.5.4 Product Models 91
4.6 An Object-Oriented Design Methodology 93
4.6.1 Single versus Multiple Inheritance 93
4.6.2 Message-Passing Architecture 94
4.7 Summary 95
Exercises 95
References 101
Further Reading 101
5 Database Concepts 103
5.1 Introduction 103
5.2 Basic Concepts 104
5.2.1 Initial Definitions 104
5.2.2 Evolution of Types of Databases 104
5.2.3 The Three-Level Architecture 106
5.3 Relational Database Systems 106
5.3.1 The Relational Model 107
5.3.2 Limitations of Relational Databases 111
5.3.3 Accessing Data in Relational Databases 112
5.4 Relational Database Design 114
5.4.1 First Normal Form 114
5.4.2 Second Normal Form 115
5.4.3 Third Normal Form 118
5.4.4 Boyce-Codd and Higher Normal Forms 119
5.4.5 Importance of Database Design 120
5.5 Transaction Processing 120
5.5.1 Definition of Transaction 121
5.5.2 Implementing Transactions 122
5.5.3 Properties of Transactions 124
5.6 Other Types of Database 124
5.6.1 Object-Oriented Databases 124
5.6.2 Geographical Databases 124
5.6.3 Multimedia Database Systems 125
5.6.4 Distributed Databases 125
5.7 Summary 126
Exercises 127
Transaction A 131
Transaction B 131
Reference 131
Further Reading 131
6 Computational Mechanics 133
6.1 Introduction 133
6.1.1 Challenges of Computational Mechanics 134
6.2 From Physical Principles to Practical Systems 135
6.3 Methods for Finding Solutions 137
6.3.1 Galerkin Method 137
6.3.2 Remarks 139
6.4 Issues in Computer-Aided Engineering 139
6.4.1 Accuracy 140
6.4.2 Speed 141
6.4.3 User Interaction 142
6.5 Summary 142
References 142
Further Reading 142
7 Constraint-Based Reasoning 143
7.1 Introduction 143
7.2 Terminology 145
7.3 Constraint-Solving Methods 146
7.3.1 Levels of Consistency for Label Propagation 147
7.3.2 Global Consistency in Label Propagation 148
7.3.3 Constraint Propagation 149
7.4 Reasoning with Constraints on Discrete Variables 149
7.4.1 CSP Complexity for Discrete Variables 151
7.5 Reasoning with Constraints on Continuous Variables 151
7.5.1 Constraint-Based Support for Collaborative Work 152
7.6 Summary 156
References 156
8 Optimization and Search 157
8.1 Introduction 157
8.2 Basic Concepts 158
8.2.1 Types of Optimization Problem 160
8.2.2 Formulating Optimization Tasks 161
8.2.3 Representing Search Spaces 163
8.2.4 Representing Constraints 164
8.2.5 Some Optimization Problems 165
8.3 Classification of Methods 167
8.4 Deterministic Optimization and Search 169
8.4.1 Special Cases 169
8.4.2 Deterministic Methods 174
8.5 Stochastic Methods 179
8.5.1 Pure Global Random Search 182
8.5.2 Local Search with Multiple Random Starts 182
8.5.3 Simulated Annealing 182
8.5.4 Genetic Algorithms 184
8.5.5 Controlled Random Search 184
8.5.6 PGSL 185
8.6 A Closer Look at Genetic Algorithms 188
8.6.1 Representation: Genetic Encoding 188
8.6.2 Evaluating an Individual 189
8.6.3 Creating the Initial Population 189
8.6.4 The Fitness Function 190
8.6.5 Reproduction 190
8.6.6 Mutation 192
8.7 Summary of Methods 192
Exercises 193
References 198
Further Reading 198
9 Knowledge Systems for Decision Support 199
9.1 Introduction 199
9.2 Important Characteristics of Knowledge Systems 200
9.3 Representation of Knowledge 202
9.3.1 Representation of Knowledge in Knowledge Systems 204
9.4 Reasoning with Knowledge 205
9.4.1 Rule Selection and Conflict Resolution 207
9.5 Importance of the User Interface 207
9.6 Maintenance of Knowledge 208
9.7 Model-based Reasoning 209
9.8 Case-Based Reasoning 209
9.8.1 Stages of Case-Based Reasoning 210
9.9 Summary 215
Reference 215
Further Reading 215
10 Machine Learning 217
10.1 Introduction 217
10.2 Improving Performance with Experience 218
10.3 Formalizing the Learning Task 220
10.3.1 Searching Hypothesis Spaces 224
10.4 Learning Algorithms 224
10.4.1 Rote Learning 225
10.4.2 Statistical Learning Techniques 226
10.4.3 Deductive Learning 230
10.4.4 Exploration and Discovery 231
10.5 A Closer Look at Artificial Neural Networks 231
10.5.1 Types of Neural Network 235
10.5.2 Learning in Neural Networks 236
10.5.3 Summary of Neural Networks 237
10.6 Support Vector Machines 237
10.6.1 Support Vector Classification 237
10.6.2 Support Vector Regression 240
10.7 Summary 240
Exercises 241
References 242
Further Reading 242
11 Geometric Modelling 243
11.1 Introduction 243
11.2 Engineering Applications 244
11.2.1 Criteria for Evaluating Representations 244
11.3 Mathematical Models for Representing Geometry 245
11.3.1 Two-Dimensional Representation of Simple Shapes 245
11.3.2 Curves Without Simple Mathematical Representations 247
11.3.3 B¿ezier Curves 248
11.3.4 Mathematical Representation of Simple Surfaces 249
11.3.5 B¿ezier Patches 250
11.3.6 Mathematical Representation of Regular-Shaped Solids 251
11.4 Representing Complex Solids 252
11.4.1 Primitive Instancing 252
11.4.2 Mesh Representations 253
11.4.3 Sweep Representations 255
11.4.4 Boundary Representations 257
11.4.5 Decomposition Models 258
11.4.6 Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG) 260
11.5 Applications 263
11.5.1 Estimation of Volume 263
11.5.2 Finite Element Mesh for a Spread Footing 264
11.5.3 3D Graphical View of a Structure 266
11.6 Summary 267
Further Reading 267
12 Computer Graphics 269
12.1 Introduction 269
12.2 Tasks of Computer Graphics 270
12.3 Display Devices 270
12.3.1 Types of Display Device 271
12.3.2 From Geometric Representations to Graphical Displays 272
12.4 Representing Graphics 272
12.4.1 Representing Colours 273
12.4.2 Coordinate System 273
12.4.3 Bitmap Representations 274
12.4.4 Higher-Level Representations 275
12.5 The Graphics Pipeline 276
12.5.1 Modelling Transformations 276
12.5.2 Viewing Transformations 280
12.5.3 Scan Conversion 285
12.6 Interactive Graphics 287
12.7 Graphical User Interfaces (GUI) and Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) 288
12.7.1 Engineer-Computer Interaction 288
12.8 Applications 289
12.8.1 4D Simulations 289
12.8.2 Navigating Multidimensional Solution Spaces 289
12.8.3 Computer Vision and Image Processing 290
12.8.4 Laser Scanning 290
12.9 Summary 292
References 292
Further Reading 292
13 Distributed Applications and the Web 293
13.1 Introduction 293
13.1.1 A Simple Example of a Client-Server System 294
13.1.2 Definitions 295
13.1.3 Trends Driving C/S Architecture 296
13.2 Examples of Client-Server Applications 297
13.2.1 File Servers 297
13.2.2 FTP Servers 298
13.2.3 Database Servers 298
13.2.4 Groupware Servers 298
13.2.5 Object Servers 298
13.2.6 Operating System Servers 299
13.2.7 Display Servers 299
13.2.8 Web Servers 300
13.2.9 Application Servers 300
13.3 Distinctive Features of C/S Systems 300
13.3.1 Asymmetrical Protocol 300
13.3.2 Message-Based Mechanism 301
13.3.3 Why are Protocols Important? 304
13.4 Client-server System Design 304
13.4.1 Three-Tier Architecture 305
13.4.2 Application Partitioning 306
13.5 Advantages of Client-Server Systems 307
13.6 Developing Client-Server Applications 307
13.6.1 TCP/IP Sockets 308
13.6.2 Other Middleware Options 309
13.7 The World Wide Web 309
13.7.1 Limitations of Exchanging Only Static Information 310
13.7.2 Common Gateway Interface 310
13.7.3 Engineering Applications on the Web 311
13.7.4 Other Models for Dynamic Information Exchange 311
13.8 Peer-to-Peer Networks 312
13.8.1 Information Interchange Through P2P Networks 314
13.8.2 P2P Networks for Engineering Applications 314
13.8.3 Advantages of Peer-to-Peer Networks 315
13.8.4 Issues and Challenges 315
13.9 Agent Technology 316
13.9.1 Issues in Multi-Agent Systems 317
13.10 Cloud Computing 318
13.11 Complexity 319
13.12 Summary 319
Reference 320
Further Reading 320
Index 321
