
Microalgae as a Source of Bioenergy: Products, Processes and Economics
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Microalgae could play an important role in the achievement of sustainability goals related to the generation of renewable energy and the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. These photosynthetic microorganisms are able to capture CO2 and their biomass can be used to produce biofuels such as ethanol, methane and biodiesel. Other factors, such as their high growth rate, ability to use wastewater as a culture medium and the ability to grow on non-arable land makes them a potentially economical source of biofuel production on a large scale.
This monograph introduces the reader to the basic and applied science of microalgal biofuel production. 17 chapters in the volume give information about bioethanol and biogas production from microalgal sources, the fermentation process, optimization of culture parameters and industrial applications of biomass projects, between other topics.
The book is a useful reference for biotechnology and environmental science graduates and professionals interested in biofuel production.
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Content
- Intro
- CONTENTS
- PREFACE
- List of Contributors
- Part I Energy from Microalgae: Products and Processes
- Perspectives of Energy Production from Microalgae: The Biodiesel and Cogeneration Cases
- Carlos A. Cardona*, Daniela Parra and Sebastián Serna
- INTRODUCTION
- Microalgae for Energy Production
- Biofuel Production Processes from Microalgae
- Biochemical Conversion
- Anaerobic Digestion
- Alcoholic Fermentation
- Photobiological Hydrogen Production
- Thermochemical Conversion
- Algal Biomass to Biodiesel
- Biorefineries
- Challenges in the Use of Microalgae for Energy Production
- SCENARIOS ANALYSIS: SIMULATION FOR COGENERATION AND BIODIESEL CASES
- Cogeneration from Extraction Cake Residues
- Biodiesel Production Using Basic Catalysis
- CONCLUSION
- CONFLICT OF INTEREST
- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
- REFERENCES
- Energetic Products from Microalgae: Bioethanol
- Choon Gek Khoo1, Man Kee Lam2,* and Keat Teong Lee1
- OVERVIEW ON THE RENEWABLE ENERGY DEVELOPMENT
- BIOETHANOL FROM MICROALGAE
- EFFECT OF CULTIVATION CONDITIONS TO IMPROVE CARBO-HYDRATE PRODUCTION
- Effect of Sulfur
- Effect of Nitrogen
- Effect of Phosphorus
- Effect of Carbon Source
- Inorganic Carbon
- Organic Carbon
- Light Intensity
- CARBOHYDRATE IN MICROALGAE
- Cellulose
- Starch
- MICROALGAE BIOETHANOL PRODUCTION
- PRE-TREATMENT & HYDROLYSIS
- Physical Pre-treatment
- Chemical Pre-Treatment
- Enzymatic Pre-treatment
- FERMENTATION PROCESS
- Separate Hydrolysis and Fermentation (SHF)
- Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation (SSF)
- Microorganism for Fermentation of Microalgae Biomass
- PRODUCTS RECOVERY
- CONCLUSIONS
- CONFLICT OF INTEREST
- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
- REFERENCES
- Bioethanol Production Process
- Fabiana Regina Xavier Batista*, Juliana de Souza Ferreira and Vicelma Luiz Cardoso
- DIFFERENT ROUTES TO ETHANOL PRODUCTION
- MICROALGAE CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BIOETHANOL PRODUCTION
- General Algae Information
- Brown and Green Algae Used as Feedstock
- Self Fermentation or Intracellular Bioethanol Production Excreted to Supernatant
- RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE USE OF ALGAE RELATED TO BIOETHANOL PRODUCTION
- CONCLUDING REMARKS
- CONFLICT OF INTEREST
- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
- REFERENCES
- Methane Production Process for Microalgae Conversion
- Martin Pablo Caporgno, Esther Torrens and Christophe Bengoa*
- INTRODUCTION
- BIOGAS FROM MICROALGAE: THE HISTORY
- THE ANAEROBIC DIGESTION PROCESS
- Parameters Affecting AD of Microalgae
- Substrate Characteristics
- Mixing
- Retention Time
- Temperature
- Alkalinity and pH
- Nutrients
- Other Causes of Inhibition
- LIMITATIONS OF MICROALGAE AS SUBSTRATES FOR AD
- Resistance of the Cell Walls
- Microalgae Concentration
- Carbon:Nitrogen Ratio
- CONFLICT OF INTEREST
- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
- REFERENCES
- Microalgae, Taking Over the Role in the Hydrogen Future
- Suphi S. Oncel*
- INTRODUCTION
- MICROALGAE: WHEN AND WHY
- MICROALGAE: A PHOTOSYNTHETIC GREEN FACTORY
- MICROALGAL HYDROGEN PRODUCTION CONSIDERING BOTH PROKARYOTES AND EUKARYOTES
- MICROALGAL HYDROGEN PRODUCTION SYSTEMS: THE PHOTOBIOREACTORS
- MICROALGAL HYDROGEN PRODUCTION SUCCESS STORY: THE CHLAMYDOMONAS CASE
- MICROALGAL HYDROGEN PRODUCTION: KEYS FOR THE FUTURE
- CONCLUSION
- CONFLICT OF INTEREST
- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
- REFERENCES
- Algal Production Platforms
- Alessandro Marco Lizzul1,* and Aitor Lekuona-Amundarain2
- INTRODUCTION
- IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS
- Lighting
- Mixing and Mass Transfer
- Control Systems and Construction Materials
- CULTIVATION SYSTEMS
- Pond Based Systems
- Plate Based Systems
- Horizontal Tubular Systems
- Bubble Columns
- Airlift Reactors
- PHOTOBIOREACTOR DESIGN SUMMARY
- PHOTOBIOREACTOR USE FOR BIOFUELS
- CONFLICT OF INTEREST
- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
- REFERENCES
- Use of Flue Gas as Carbon Source
- Jorge Alberto V. Costa1, Adriano S. A. Henrard2, Luiza Moraes1, Etiele G. Morais1, Igor S. Gonçalves2 and Michele G. Morais2*
- INTRODUCTION
- GLOBAL WARMING AND GREENHOUSE GASES
- MEASURES FOR GREENHOUSE GASES REDUCTION
- CYCLIC MICROALGAE PRODUCTION PROCESS
- POTENTIAL USE OF FLUE GASES IN MICROALGAE CULTIVATION
- FACTORS INFLUENCING CO2 FIXATION FROM FLUE GAS BY MICROALGAE
- Microalgae Strains
- CO2 Concentration in Flue Gas
- pH
- NOX, SOX and Particulate Materials
- Temperature and Light
- Mass Transfer in Bioreactors
- Bioreactor Application in CO2 Fixation by Microalgae
- CO2 BIOFIXATION METABOLISM
- BIOPRODUCTS FROM MICROALGAL BIOMASS GROWN WITH FLUE GAS
- Biofuels
- Biopigments
- Biopolymers
- CONCLUDING REMARKS
- CONFLICT OF INTEREST
- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
- REFERENCES
- Harvesting, Thickening and Dewatering Processes
- Dries Vandamme*
- INTRODUCTION
- GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR EFFECTIVE MICROALGAE HARVESTING
- MULTI-STAGE APPROACH OF HARVESTING, THICKENING AND DEWATERING
- COAGULATION-FLOCCULATION-SEDIMENTATION
- Coagulation Mechanisms
- Chemical Flocculation
- Auto/Alkaline Flocculation
- Electro-coagulation
- Bioflocculation
- Enhanced Settling
- FLOTATION
- CENTRIFUGATION
- FILTRATION
- Screening
- Membrane Filtration
- COMPARING HARVESTING METHODS
- CONCLUSION
- CONFLICT OF INTEREST
- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
- REFERENCES
- Oil Extraction Processes in Microalgae
- Mengyue Gong, Yulin Hu, Shreyas Yedahalli and Amarjeet Bassi*
- INTRODUCTION
- GENETIC ENGINEERING OF MICROALGAE FOR ENHANCEMENT OF LIPID PRODUCTION
- Lipid Production in Microalgae - Mechanism
- EXTRACTION OF LIPIDS FROM MICROALGAE
- Conventional Solvent Extraction
- Super-/Sub-Critical Solvent Extraction
- Ionic Liquid Extraction
- Novel Approaches
- CELL DISRUPTION
- Mechanical Disruption Methods
- Grinding
- Bead Milling
- High Pressure Homogenizer
- Physical or Chemical Methods
- Steam Explosion
- Autoclave
- Enzymatic Hydrolysis
- Osmotic Shock, Acid/ Alkaline Treatment
- Recent Approaches for Lipid Extraction from Microalgae
- Microwave
- Ultrasonication
- Pulsed Electric Field
- Comparison of Various Methods
- CONVERSION OF MICROALGAE TO BIO-OIL USING HYDROTHERMAL LIQUEFACTION
- CONCLUSION
- CONFLICT OF INTEREST
- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
- REFERENCES
- Part II: Production and Economics in Microalgal Applications
- Research and Deployment of Renewable Bioenergy Production from Microalgae
- Lieve M.L. Laurens* and Melodie Chen-Glasser
- INTRODUCTION
- CURRENT AND PROJECTED FUTURE ENERGY LANDSCAPE
- PROMISE AND OPPORTUNITY FOR ALGAE TECHNOLOGY
- INTERNATIONAL BIOFUELS POLICY
- GLOBAL SUPPORT FOR RESEARCH AND COMMERCIAL DEPLOYMENT
- CONCLUSION
- CONFLICT OF INTEREST
- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
- REFERENCES
- Current Production of Microalgae at Industrial Scale
- Luis G. Ramírez-Mérida1, Leila Queiroz Zepka2 and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes2,*
- INTRODUCTION
- ELEMENTS OF MICROALGAL CULTURE
- MICROALGAL BIOREACTORS
- OPERATIONAL MODES TO MICROALGAE CULTURE
- INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION OF MICROALGAL-BASED PRODUCTS
- COMPARISON BETWEEN TECHNOLOGICAL ROUTES (OPEN VS. CLOSED SYSTEMS)
- FRONTIERS IN INDUSTRIAL PHOTOBIOREACTORS
- THE BIOECONOMY OF MICROALGAE-BASED PROCESSES AT INDUSTRIAL SCALE
- CONCLUSION
- CONFLICT OF INTEREST
- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
- REFERENCES
- Environmental Applications of Microalgae: CO2 Capture and Nutrient Recycling
- Meng Wang*
- INTRODUCTION
- N AND P REMOVAL BY ALGAE
- Mechanism of N and P Utilization by Algae
- Impact of N on Intercellular and Extracellular Compounds Production
- REACTOR CONFIGURATIONS
- Open Pond Systems
- Closed Photobioreactors
- Immobilized Algal Cultivation Systems (Algal Biofilm Reactors)
- Enhanced Algal - Prokaryotic Wastewater Treatment Systems (EAPS) for N Removal
- A CASE STUDY ON NUTRIENT RECYCLE IN A CONCENTRATED ANIMAL FEEDING OPERATIONS (CAFOS) ADAPTING ALGAL-BASED WASTEWATER TREATMENT
- CO2 CAPTURE BY ALGAE
- Impact of pH and CO2 on Algae Growth
- Factors Affecting the Gas Transfer Efficiency
- Gas Supply Systems
- Airlift Photobioreactor
- Membrane Sparged Systems
- CONCLUDING REMARKS
- CONFLICT OF INTEREST
- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
- REFERENCES
- Maximising Value: The Bio-Refinery Concept
- Darren L. Oatley-Radcliffe1,2,*, Thea Ekins-Coward1 and Robert W. Lovitt1,2
- INTRODUCTION
- THE QUEST FOR SUSTAINABLE ALGAL MANUFACTURING
- ARE HIGH VALUE PRODUCTS FROM ALGAL SOURCES REALISABLE?
- ASTAXANTHIN AS A MODEL PRODUCT
- CONCLUSION
- CONFLICT OF INTEREST
- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
- REFERENCES
- Energy and Economic Challenges in the Growth and Harvesting of Microalgae. The Chlorella vulgaris Case
- Daissy Lorena Restrepo Serna, Juan Carlos Higuita Vásquez and Carlos Ariel Cardona Alzate*
- CULTURE OF MICROALGAE TODAY
- Microalgae and their Importance
- Microalgae Chlorella vulgaris
- Applications
- CHALLENGES IN THE PROCESS OF OIL EXTRACTION FROM MICROALGAE
- Culture Stage
- Harvesting Stage
- Extraction Stage
- PROCESS DESIGN FOR THE PRODUCTION OF OIL FROM MICROALGAE
- Conditions for the Culture Medium
- Definition of the Harvesting Process
- Oil Extraction Method
- ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF CHLORELLA VULGARIS PRODUCTION
- METHODOLOGY
- Definition of Variables for the Simulation Procedure
- Equipment Description
- ANALYSIS OF THE YIELDS COMPARED WITH LITERATURE
- Economic Analysis
- CONCLUSION
- CONFLICT OF INTEREST
- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
- REFERENCES
- Techno-economics of a Microalgal Route to Green Diesel
- Lin Zhou, James L. Manganaro* and Adeniyi Lawal
- RENEWABLE FUELS
- BIOFUEL FEEDSTOCKS
- Lipid-based Biomass Feedstocks
- First Generation Lipid-Based Biomass Feedstocks
- Second Generation Lipid-Based Biomass Feedstocks,
- Microalgae Oil
- Summary of Lipid-Based Biomass Feedstocks
- Non-Lipid-Based Biomass Feedstocks
- BIOFUEL PRODUCTION
- Biodiesel Production
- Green Diesel Production
- Green Diesel Production Pathways
- Green Diesel Production from Microalgae Oil
- TECHNO-ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF MICROALGAL ROUTE TO GREEN DIESEL
- INTRODUCTION
- Process description
- Design Basis and Base Case
- Growth, Harvest and Extraction
- Calculation of Pond Area Productivity and Production Rate
- Harvesting and Extraction
- ECONOMICS
- Capital Cost
- Variable Costs
- Utility Usages
- Credits
- Fixed Costs
- Case Studies
- Effect of Capital Cost, Oil Content and Productivity
- CONCLUSION
- NOMENCLATURE
- CONFLICT OF INTEREST
- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
- REFERENCES
- Greenhouse Gas Balances of Microalgal Biofuels
- Lucas Reijnders*
- ESTIMATING GREENHOUSE GAS BALANCES
- EVALUATION OF AVAILABLE PEER-REVIEWED LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENTS OF MICROALGAL BIOFUELS
- The Use of Credits
- System Boundaries
- Dealing with Methane
- Assumptions about Microalgal Yields from Ponds
- Decarbonization of Energy Supply
- Allocation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions Based on Prices
- Dealing with Uncertainty
- CONCLUSION
- CONFLICT OF INTEREST
- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
- REFERENCES
- Triple Bottom Line Assessment of Algae Bio-crude Production
- Arunima Malik*
- INTRODUCTION
- METHODOLOGY
- A Brief Introduction to Input-Output (IO) Analysis
- Hybird Life-Cycle Assessment
- Hybridisation of Process Data with Input-Output Data
- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
- Comparison: Algae Bio-crude Supply Chain vs. Crude Oil Supply Chain
- Triple Bottom Line Footprints of Algae Bio-crude Production
- CONCLUDING REMARKS
- CONFLICT OF INTEREST
- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
- REFERENCES
- SUBJECT INDEX
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