
The Foundations of Grammar
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- THE FOUNDATIONS OF GRAMMAR AN INTRODUCTION TO MEDIEVAL ARABIC GRAMMATICAL THEORY
- Editorial page
- Title page
- Copyright page
- Dedication
- Table of contents
- Symbols and conventions
- PREFACE
- 1. INTRODUCTION
- 1. Aims of the Work
- 1.1 What the work does and does not do
- 1.1.1 What it does
- 1.1.2 What the study does not do
- 1.1.2.1 Not a grammar of Arabic
- 1.1.2.2 Not a comprehensive treatment of Arabic theory
- 1.1.2.3 History of Arabic theory
- 1.1.2.4 Individual authors
- 1.1.2.5 Historical and cultural perspectives
- 1.2 Who Were the Arabic grammarians?
- 1.2.1 The schools of grammar
- 1.2.1.1 The nature of the disputes
- two examples
- 1.2.1.2 References to Kufa and Basra in ninth century work
- 1.2.2 Post-ninth century
- 1.3 Arabic grammatical work
- 1.3.1 Descriptive grammars
- 1.3.2 Specialized subjects
- 1.3.3 General principles
- 1.3.4 Rhetoric (balâgha)
- 1.3.5 Lexicography (cf. Wild 1956, Rippen 1983)
- 1.3.6 Quranic interpretation
- 1.3.7 Bio-bibliographical sources
- 1.3.8 Ancillary works
- 1.4 The data
- 1.5 The descriptive technique
- 1.6 Western linguistic principles
- 1.7 Language diversity and language change
- 1.7.1 Dialect differences
- 1.7.2 Language change?
- 1.8 Organization of grammars
- 2. STRUCTURE, FUNCTION, CLASS and DEPENDENCY
- 2.1 Structure and function
- 2.1.1 Position and item realizing position
- 2.1.2 Terminology of position
- 2.2 Terms for sentence, kalâm and jumla
- 2.3 Governance/dependency, cAmal
- 2.3.1 The Arabic definition of dependency
- 2.3.2 The western conception
- 2.3.3 An initial comparison
- 2.3.4 Detailed comparison
- 2.3.4.1 One governor per item
- 2.3.4.1.1 Sarrâj
- 2.3.4.1.2 Ibn Yacîsh
- 2.3.4.2 Governor and governed adjacent (condition 13d)
- 2.3.4.3 The exception that proves the rule
- 2.3.5 Three further observations
- 2.3.5.1 Governor-governed: a one-many relation
- 2.3.5.2 Dependency is unidirectional
- 2.3.4.3 Sequence generalization
- 2.3.6 Differences
- 2.3.6.1 The independent item
- 2.3.6.2 Modifiers
- 2.3.7 Governance and surface form
- 2.4 Six explanations for Case Form
- 2.4.1 Governance by syntactic position
- 2.4.2 Obligatory occurrence
- 2.4.3 By referential non-identity
- 2.4.4. Explanation by cross-categorical similarity: indicative verb
- 2.4.5 By speaker
- 2.4.6 By governing item
- 2.5 The function of inflection
- 2.5.1 Inflection of the verb
- 2.5.2 Governance of the noun
- 2.6 Uninflected words
- 2.7 Class
- 2.7.1 Sarrâj's summary
- 2.7.2 Class in morpho phonology
- 2.7.3 Class in morphology
- 2.8 Non-dependency relations and dependency
- 2.9 Constituency in Arabic theory
- 2.9.1 Syntactic position
- 2.9.2 Dependency
- 2.9.3 Dependency in Sîbawaih
- 2.9.4 Substitution
- 2.10 Complementary distribution
- 2.11 Morphological structure in Arabic theory
- 2.12 The structural nature of Arabic theory
- 2.12.1 Can a condition (hâl) or specifier (tamyîz) become the agent of a passive sentence ?
- 2.12.2 Constraints on embedding
- 3. MORPHOLOGY
- 3.1 The linguistic sign: Kalâm, Kalima and Lafdh
- 3.1.1 Kalâm and Kalima
- 3.1.2 Lafdh "form
- 3.2 Three preliminary remarks
- 3.2.1 Orthography
- 3.2.2 The root system
- 3.2.3 The Firthian nature of Arabic phonology and morphophono1ogy
- 3.3 Tasrîf
- 3.3.1 Tasrif: distinguishing basic and non-basic sounds
- 3.3.2 Tasrîf: total range of morphological patterns
- 3.3.3 Sub-categories of tasrîf
- 3.3.4 Borderline cases and the breakdown of the morphology/ syntax, tasrîf/nahw model
- 3.4 'Ishtiqâq "Derivation
- 3.5 Morphemes and added sounds
- 3.5.1 Added sounds and bound morphemes
- 3.5.1.1 Kalima: word or morpheme?
- 3.5.1.2 Not all morphemes are kalima
- 3.5.2 The rationale behind the added letters
- 3.5.2.1 Meaning
- 3.5.2.2 Non-basic sounds without a meaning
- 3.5.2.2.1 Meaning
- 3.5.2.2.2 Morphotactical constraints
- 3.5.2.2.3 Derivation (ishtiqâq)
- 3.5.3 Other morphological patterns
- 3.6 The Tasrîf of a root
- 3.7 Arabic morphemic theory
- 3.8 Morphology as a generative system
- 3.9 Compounding (tarkîb)
- 3.10 Summary
- 4. WORD CLASSES
- 4.1 Phonological
- 4.2 Morphological
- 4.2.1 Nouns
- 4.2.2 Verbs
- 4.3 Syntactic
- 4.3.1 Noun
- 4.3.2 Verbs
- 4.4 Semantic (cf. Frank 1975: 272 ff.)
- 4.4.1 Nouns
- 4.4.2 Verbs'
- 4.4.3 Particles
- 4.5 Problems in the criteria
- 4.6 Sub-classes
- 4.7 The circumstance (Dharf)
- 4.7.1 Dharf "circumstance" as word class vs. functional category
- 4.7.2 Semantic unity, syntactic distinction?
- 4.7.3 Mubarrad's treatment
- 4.7.4 The meaning of mutamakkin for the circumstantials
- 4.7.5 Later accounts
- 4.8 The active participle (AP)
- 4.8.1 Aspect
- 4.8.2 Irregularities
- 4.9 The 'verb' of exclamation
- 4.9.1 Kufan arguments
- 4.9.2 Basran arguments
- 4.9.3 Basran rejoinders
- 4.9.4 Conclusion
- 5. THE NOUN PHRASE
- 5.1 What is a noun phrase and what does it do?
- 5.2 The noun phrase components in Arabic theory
- 5.3 Noun-noun relations
- 5.3.1 Possessed-possessor
- 5.3.2 Modifiers, tawâbic
- 5.3.3 The relative clause
- 5.4 The noun phrase as a unit
- 5.4.1 Informal evidence
- 5.4.1.1 Phrase level vs. sentence level
- 5.4.1.2 Substitution
- 5.4.2 The noun phrase as a formal unit
- 5.4.2.1 Three principles
- 5.4.2.2 The modifiers
- 5.4.3 A further principle: pairwise relations and sequence
- 5.5 Summary
- 6. TRANSITIVITY
- 6.1 Types of objects
- 6.1.1 Direct objects (mafc û1 bihi)
- 6.1.2 Two interpretations of 'transitive' (mutacaddi)
- 6.2 More objects
- 6.3 Optionality
- 6.4 Causative
- 6.4.1 Causativization as a unitary process
- 6.4.2 Lexical nature of causatives
- 6.5 Voice and verb derivation
- 6.6 The passive
- 6.6.1 Description
- 6.6.2 Passivization as a process
- 7. ELLIPSIS
- 7.1 Contextual
- 7.2 Structural
- 7.2.1 Sarrâj's example
- 7.2.2 'Ishtighâl
- 7.2.3 Predicate locative
- 7.2.4 Vocative
- 7.3 Non-deletion
- 7.4 Ibn Hishâm's summary
- 7.4.1 Information
- 7.4.2 Operation of opposite processes
- 7.4.3 Restrictions on reduction
- 7.4.4 Grammatical constraints
- 7.5 Extension of function ('ittisâc)
- 7.6 The status of deletion
- 7.6.1 Contexts where ellipsis is not good
- 7.6.2 Allowed
- 7.6.3 The ellipted item cannot be expressed
- 7.7 Kufan-Basran arguments
- 7.8 Not all implicit relations are due to deletion
- 7.9 Comparison with deletions in transformational grammar
- 8. MARKEDNESS IN ARABIC THEORY
- 8.1 What is markedness?
- 8.2 An aside for terminology
- 8.3 Markedness in Arabic theory: Sîbawaih
- 8.4 Examples from later grammarians
- 8.4.1 'akhaff -'athgal "lighter-heavier
- 8.4.2 'aqwâ-'adcaf "strong-weak
- 8.4.3 'awwal, qabl "first, before
- 8.4.4 'asl-farc
- 8.5 Two interpretations of Anbârî's markedness schema
- 8.6 Anbârî's schema exemplified
- 8.6.1 The inflected verb
- 8.6.2 Uninflected nouns, mabnî
- 8.6.3 Partially inflected nouns
- 8.6.4 Unmarked members of a word class
- 8.6.5 The form of the nominative
- 8.7 Sequence
- 8.7.1 Sequence with morphologically irregular verbs
- 8.7.2 Morphologically regular verbs
- 8.8 The 'asl-farc distinction as one of markedness
- 8.9 Comparison with transformational-generative grammar
- 8.9.1 Two aspects of TG
- 8.9.2 Two differences with Arabic theory
- 8.9.3 A TG vocabulary?
- 9. SYNTAX, SEMANTICS AND PRAGMATICS
- 9.1 Semantic observations
- 9.1.1 Acceptability and sentence types
- 9.1.1.1 Sîbawaih
- 9.1.1.2 Fârisî
- 9.1.2 Lexical items
- 9.2 Syntax and semantics
- 9.2.1 Correspondence
- 9.2.2 Lack of correspondence
- 9.2.2.1 Sentence and lexical items
- 9.2.2.2 Lack of correspondence and linguistic explanation
- 9.2.2.2.1 Ibn Hishâm and Ibn Jinnî
- 9.2.2.2.2 Semantics and the re-analysis of syntactic explanation
- 9.2.2.2.3 Semantic constraints on syntactic processes: the specifier and fronting
- 9.2.2.2.4 Structural similarities, differences, and semantic generalizations: the nawâsikh
- 9.2.2.2.5 Possession and the dictates of general assumptions
- 9.3 A separate semantic level?
- 9.4 Arabic grammar and transformational theory
- 9.5 Jurjânî, language and communication
- 9.6 Jurjânî and the Arabic linguistic tradition
- 9.7 Word order
- 9.7.1 Topic-comment and verb-predicate
- 9.7.1.1 Important item first
- 9.7.1.2 New/old information
- 9.7.1.2.1 Yes-no
- 9.7.1.2.2 Negative
- 9.7.1.2.3 Indicative
- 9.7.2 Multi-systemic analyses
- 9.7.3 unmarked sequence
- 9.7.4 Terminological difficulties
- 9.7.5 Definite topic-comment sentence
- 9.8 Epilogue
- NOTES
- Chapter 1
- Chapter 2
- Chapter 3
- Chapter 4
- Chapter 5
- Chapter 6
- Chapter 7
- Chapter 8
- Chapter 9
- APPENDIX I. LIST OF MEDIEVAL ARABIC LINGUISTICS WHOSE WORKS ARE CITED
- APPENDIX II. BRIEF SUMMARY OF GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTIONS
- APPENDIX III. ORIGINAL ARABIC QUOTES
- BIBLIOGRAPHY
- Primary sources
- Secondary sources
- INDEX OF NAMES FROM THE CLASSICAL PERIOD
- SUBJECT INDEX
- INDEX OF ARABIC GRAMMATICAL TERMS
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