Movement Disorders in Neurology and Systemic Disorders

Name: Movement Disorders in Neurology and Systemic Disorders
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Published on 12. November 2024

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Intro
Movement Disorders in Neurology and Systemic Disorders
Copyright
Contents
Contributors
Chapter One: Approach to movement disorders
1. Introduction
2. Hypokinetic/Akinetic-rigid movement disorders
3. Hyperkinetic movement disorders
3.1. Dystonia
3.2. Tremor
3.3. Myoclonus
3.4. Chorea
3.5. Ballismus
3.6. Dyskinesia
3.7. Athetosis
3.8. Tics
3.9. Stereotypy
3.10. Ataxia
4. Approaching a case of movement disorder
5. Investigations
6. Conclusions
References
Chapter Two: Movement disorders in stroke and vascular disorders
1. Introduction
2. Methods
3. Epidemiology
4. Phenomenology
4.1. Hyperkinetic movement disorders
4.1.1. Hemichorea-hemiballism and athetosis
4.1.2. Dystonia
4.1.3. Tremor
4.1.4. Myoclonus and asterixis
4.1.5. Stereotypies, akathisia, and tics
4.1.6. Post-stroke restless leg syndrome (psRLS) and periodic limb movement disorder (psPLMD)
4.1.7. Limb shaking TIA (transient ischemic attacks)
4.1.8. Post-stroke lateropulsion
4.2. Hypokinetic movement disorders
4.2.1. Vascular parkinsonism
4.2.2. Vascular progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP) and corticobasal syndrome (CBS)
4.3. Ataxia
5. Neuroimaging
5.1. Lesion locations
5.2. Circuits and brain networks
5.3. Molecular brain imaging
6. Pathophysiology
7. Treatment
8. Outcome and prognosis
9. Future directions
Funding sources and conflict of interest
Financial disclosures
References
Chapter Three: Movement disorders associated with neuromuscular and mitochondrial disorders
1. Movement disorders associated with muscular disorders and neuromuscular junction disorders
1.1. Parkinsonism
1.2. Tremor
1.3. Dystonia and pseudodystonia
2. Peripheral nerve hyperexcitability syndrome
2.1. Myokymia and neuromyotonia
2.2. Hemimasticatory spasm and hemifacial spasm
2.3. Muscle cramps
2.4. Tetany
3. Movement disorders associated with peripheral neuropathies
3.1. Possible pathomechanisms
3.2. Movement disorders associated with peripheral neuropathies based on phenomenology
3.2.1. Neuropathic tremor
3.2.2. Myoclonus
3.2.3. Dystonia
3.2.4. Focal dyskinesias
3.2.5. Painful legs and moving toes and its variants
3.2.6. Restless legs syndrome
3.3. Movement disorders associated with peripheral neuropathies according to etiology
3.3.1. Chronic acquired demyelinating neuropathies
3.3.2. Nutritional and metabolic disorders
3.3.3. Medication-induced peripheral neuropathy and movement disorders
3.3.4. Hereditary neuropathies with movement disorders
3.3.5. Movement disorders associated with peripheral injury
4. Movement disorders associated with mitochondrial disorders
4.1. Movement disorders associated with mitochondrial disorders based on phenomenology
4.1.1. Ataxia
4.1.2. Dystonia
4.1.3. Parkinsonism
4.1.4. Myoclonus
4.1.5. Chorea
4.1.6. Other movement disorders
5. Conclusion
References
Chapter Four: Movement disorders associated with demyelinating disorders
1. Introduction
2. Movement disorders in multiple sclerosis
2.1. Tremor
2.2. Ataxia
2.3. Restless legs syndrome
2.4. Paroxysmal movement disorders
2.5. Parkinsonism
2.6. Myoclonus
2.7. Chorea/Ballism
2.8. Hemifacial spasm
2.9. Facial myokymia
2.10. Tics
3. Movement disorders in other demyelinating diseases
3.1. Neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD)
3.2. Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM)
3.3. Osmotic myelinolysis
4. Conclusion
References
Chapter FIve: Movement disorders and seizures: Overlapping phenomenology, shared etiologies and diagnostic challenges
1. The overlapping phenomenology (shared semiology)
1.1. Tonic phenomena
1.2. Clonic phenomena
1.3. Atonic phenomena
1.4. Spasm phenomena
1.5. Versive phenomena
1.6. Dystonic phenomena
1.7. Automotor phenomena
1.8. Hyperkinetic/hypermotor phenomena
1.9. Myoclonic phenomena
2. Shared etiologies of movement disorders and epilepsy
2.1. Epileptic syndromes with movement disorders
2.2. Movement disorders with seizures
2.3. Autoimmune disorders with movement disorders and seizures
2.4. Movement disorders and Seizures: Impact of their therapies
2.5. Functional movement disorders and functional seizures
3. Shared pathophysiology between epilepsy and movement disorders
3.1. Genetic channelopathies
3.2. Genetic non-channelopathies
3.3. Proteinopathies
4. Diagnostic approach and management
5. Conclusions
References
Chapter Six: Movement disorders in autoimmune and paraneoplastic disorders
1. Introduction
2. Movement disorders and autoimmune diseases
2.1. Movement disorders associated with neuronal antibodies
2.1.1. Anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate-receptor (NMDAR) antibody associated movement disorders
2.1.2. Anti-GAD65 antibody associated movement disorders
2.1.3. Caspr2 antibody associated movement disorders
2.1.4. Dipeptidyl-peptidase-like protein-6 (DPPX) antibody associated movement disorders
2.1.5. Leucine-rich-glioma-inactivated-1 (LGI1) antibody associated movement disorders
2.1.6. Metabotropic glutamate receptor 1 (mGluR1) antibody associated movement disorders
2.1.7. Immunoglobulin-like cell adhesion molecule 5 (IgLON5) antibody associated movement disorders
2.1.8. Gamma aminobutyric acid type A and type B receptors (GABAAR, GABABR) antibody associated movement disorders
2.1.9. Anti-dopamine 2 receptor (D2R) antibody associated movement disorders
2.2. General treatment strategies in autoimmune movement disorders
2.3. Movement disorders in paraneoplastic diseases
2.3.1. Paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration (PCD)
2.3.2. Opsoclonus myoclonus ataxia
2.3.3. Stiff-person spectrum disorders
2.3.4. Neuromyotonia and myokymia
2.3.5. Paraneoplastic jaw dystonia and laryngospasm
2.3.6. Paraneoplastic chorea
2.4. Diagnostic investigations in autoimmune and paraneoplastic diseases
2.5. Movement disorders in systemic autoimmune diseases
2.5.1. Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)
2.5.2. Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome
2.5.3. Sjögren syndrome
2.5.4. Hashimoto´s thyroiditis
2.5.5. Coeliac disease
2.5.6. Behçet disease
3. Conclusion
References
Chapter Seven: Movement disorders in the intensive care unit
1. Introduction
2. Pathophysiology of movement disorders in critical illness
3. Hyperkinetic movements and syndromes
3.1. Myoclonus
3.2. Tremor
3.3. Acute dystonic reaction and status dystonicus
3.4. Chorea, ballismus, and athetosis
3.5. Tardive syndromes and akathisia
3.6. Parkinson´s dyskinesia and dyskinesia-hyperpyrexia syndrome
3.7. Tetanus
3.8. Hyperkinetic movement disorder mimics
4. Hypokinetic movements and syndromes
4.1. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome
4.2. Parkinsonism-hyperpyrexia syndrome
4.3. Malignant catatonia
4.4. Serotonin syndrome
4.5. Malignant hyperthermia
5. Ataxia
6. The complexities of autoimmune and paraneoplastic encephalitis
7. Post-traumatic movement disorders
8. Additional emergencies in Parkinson´s disease and atypical Parkinsonisms
9. Conclusion and practical considerations in the ICU
References
Chapter Eight: Movement disorders associated with infections
1. Introduction
2. Definition of infection related movement disorders
3. Infectious pathogens commonly associated with movement disorders
3.1. Viral infections
3.2. Bacterial infections
3.3. Other infections
4. Pathophysiological mechanisms in infection related movement disorders
5. Approach to suspected infection related movement disorders
6. Investigative modalities in the diagnosis of infection related movement disorders
6.1. Blood and cerebrospinal fluid analysis
6.2. Neuroimaging
7. Diagnostic criteria for infection related movement disorders
8. Management approach for infection related movement disorders
8.1. Early initiation of disease specific therapy for underlying infections
8.2. Symptomatic therapy of the existing movement disorder phenotype
8.3. Immunosuppressive or immunomodulator therapy in suspected inflammatory/autoimmune pathophysiology
9. Management of specific causes of infection-related movement disorders
9.1. Management based on syndromic diagnosis
9.1.1. Acute cerebellar ataxia in children or post-infectious cerebellar ataxia
9.1.1.1. Clinical features
9.1.1.2. Investigations
9.1.1.3. Management
9.1.2. Opsoclonus myoclonus ataxia syndrome (OMAS)
9.1.2.1. Clinical features
9.1.2.2. Investigations
9.1.2.3. Management
9.1.3. Parkinsonism secondary to infections
9.1.3.1. Mechanism
9.1.3.2. Management
9.2. Management of infection related movement disorders due to specific bacterial infections
9.2.1. Sydenham´s chorea
9.2.1.1. Clinical features
9.2.1.2. Diagnosis and investigations
9.2.1.3. Management and outcome
9.2.2. CNS tuberculosis (CNS-TB)
9.2.2.1. Clinical features
9.2.2.2. Mechanism
9.2.2.3. Management
9.2.2.4. Outcome
9.2.3. Neurosyphilis
9.2.3.1. Clinical features
9.2.3.2. Mechanisms
9.2.3.3. Investigations
9.2.3.4. Management and outcome
9.2.4. Whipple disease
9.2.5. Enteric fever
9.2.6. Scrub typhus
9.3. Management of infection related movement disorders due to viral infections
9.3.1. HIV and opportunistic infection-related movement disorders
9.3.1.1. Clinical features
9.3.1.2. Tremor in HIV-AIDS
9.3.1.3. AIDS related parkinsonism
9.3.2. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy
9.3.3. Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis
9.3.3.1. Clinical features
9.3.3.2. Investigations
9.3.3.3. Treatment
9.3.4. Movement disorders associated with COVID-19 infection
9.4. Management of infection related movement disorders due to other infections
9.4.1. Cerebral malaria
9.4.1.1. Clinical features
9.4.1.2. Mechanism
9.4.1.3. Treatment
9.4.2. Neurocysticercosis
9.4.2.1. Clinical features
9.4.2.2. Mechanism
9.4.2.3. Treatment
9.4.3. CNS toxoplasmosis
9.4.4. Cryptococcus and other fungal infections
9.4.5. Creutzfeldt Jacob disease (CJD)
10. Conclusion
References
Chapter Nine: Movement disorders related to metabolic, endocrinal and nutritional disorders
1. Introduction
2. Endocrinal disorders
2.1. Thyroid disease
2.2. Hypoparathyroidism/pseudohypoparathyroidism and Fahr´s disease
2.3. Hyperparathyroidism
3. Metabolic disorders
3.1. Hyperglycemia and hypoglycemia
3.2. Nephropathy and uremia
3.3. Hepatic diseases
4. Electrolyte disorders
4.1. Hyponatremia
4.2. Hypermanganesemia
5. Nutritional disorders
5.1. Thiamine deficiency
5.2. Vitamin E deficiency
6. Inherited/inborn errors of metabolism
7. Conclusion
References
Chapter Ten: Movement disorders related to drugs and toxins
1. Mode of action
2. Drug-induced movement disorders
2.1. Acute and subacute reactions
2.1.1. Dystonia
2.1.2. Akathisia
2.2. Drug-induced hyperthermic syndromes
2.2.1. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome
2.2.2. Serotonin syndrome
2.3. Parkinsonism
2.4. Tardive syndromes
2.4.1. Definitions
2.4.1.1. Tardive dyskinesia
2.4.1.2. Tardive dystonia, tardive akathisia
2.4.2. Causes and risk factors
2.4.3. Clinical features
2.4.4. Management
2.5. Others
2.5.1. Summary
3. Toxin-induced movement disorders
3.1. Heavy metals
3.1.1. Manganese
3.1.1.1. Management
3.1.2. Lead
3.1.2.1. Management
3.1.3. Mercury
3.2. Pesticides
3.2.1. Paraquat
3.2.1.1. Management
3.2.2. Rotenone
3.2.2.1. Management
3.2.3. Organophosphorus compounds
3.2.3.1. Management
3.3. Carbon monoxide (CO)
3.3.1. Treatment
4. Conclusion
References
Further reading
Chapter Eleven: Movement disorders in pediatric neurology
1. Introduction
2. Anatomic basis of movement disorders in children
3. Phenomenology of movement disorders in children
4. Individual MD and their causes (Table 2)
4.1. Dystonia
4.2. Chorea, ballismus, and athetosis
4.3. Ataxia
4.4. Tremors
4.5. Myoclonus
4.6. Tics and Tourette syndrome
4.7. Stereotypies
4.8. Parkinsonism
5. General approach
5.1. Whether the movements are part of normal development or pathological?
5.2. Characterization according to the phenomenology
5.3. Is the movement disorder isolated or combined?
5.4. Temporal profile
5.5. What are the additional neurological signs/symptoms?
6. Diagnosis and management
7. Conclusion
References
Chapter Twelve: Clinical approaches and managements of sleep-related movement disorders
1. Introduction
2. Basic neurology of sleep and circadian rhythm
3. Anatomical structures and mechanisms involved in sleep-wake control
4. Motor control during sleep
5. International classification of sleep disorders: Spotlights on sleep-related movement disorders and parasomnias
6. Clinical approaches and investigations for sleep-related movement disorders
7. Sleep-related movement disorders
7.1. Restless legs syndrome/Willis-Ekbom disease (RLS/WED)
7.1.1. Pathophysiology of RLS/WED
7.1.2. Primary and secondary RLS/WED
7.1.3. Epidemiology of RLS/WED
7.1.4. Clinical features of RLS/WED
7.1.5. Investigations of RLS/WED
7.1.6. Management of RLS/WED
7.1.7. Pharmacological interventions
7.1.7.1. Iron therapy
7.1.8. Treatment of intermittent RLS/WED
7.1.9. Treatment of chronic persistent RLS/WED
7.1.10. Treatment of refractory RLS/WED
7.1.11. Non-pharmacological interventions
7.1.12. Augmentation
7.1.13. Management of Augmentation
7.2. Periodic limb movement disorder (PLMD)
7.2.1. Clinical diagnosis criteria and essential characteristics
7.2.2. Epidemiology of PLMD
7.2.3. Associated features and differential diagnosis of PLMD
7.2.4. Investigation of PLMD
7.2.5. Management of PLMD
7.3. Nocturnal muscle cramps
7.3.1. Clinical diagnosis criteria and essential characteristics
7.3.2. Epidemiology of nocturnal muscle cramps
7.3.3. Pathophysiology and Aetiologic of nocturnal muscle cramps
7.3.4. Managements of nocturnal muscle cramps
7.4. Sleep-related bruxism
7.4.1. Clinical diagnosis criteria and essential characteristics
7.4.2. Epidemiology of sleep-related bruxism
7.4.3. Pathophysiology and etiology of sleep-related bruxism
7.4.4. Investigations of sleep-Related bruxism
7.4.5. Associated features and differential diagnosis of sleep-related bruxism
7.4.6. Managements of sleep-related bruxism
7.5. Sleep-related rhythmic movement disorder
7.5.1. Clinical diagnosis criteria and essential characteristics
7.5.2. Pathophysiology and etiology of sleep-related rhythmic movement disorder
7.5.3. Associated features and differential diagnosis of sleep-related rhythmic movement disorder
7.5.4. Managements of sleep-related rhythmic movement disorder
7.6. Other sleep-related movement disorders
7.7. Other parasomnias and sleep disorders with abnormal nocturnal motor behaviors/ movements
8. Conclusions
Acknowledgment
Author roles
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Movement Disorders in Neurology and Systemic Disorders

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