Fundamentals of Soil Behavior
Description
Authoritative and generously illustrated resource covering the many properties of soil and its behavior needed for addressing geotechnical and geoenvironmental engineering projects and problems.
The Fourth Edition of Fundamentals of Soil Behavior has been thoroughly updated to provide the latest information on the physical properties of soil and the fundamentals of its behavior, with hundreds of tables and graphs illustrating correlations among composition, classification, state, and static and dynamic properties. Overall, each topic is addressed in a micro-to-macro sequence, considering behaviors at the atomic and/or particle scales to develop understanding of soil properties and behaviors at the macro-scale, which is relevant to engineering practice.
This Fourth Edition includes two new chapters on special features of soil behavior and temperature-dependent soil behavior. Other chapters have been substantially updated to include the latest developments in imaging technology, and analysis numerical simulations that have advanced research on the complexities of soil behavior, and recent experimental data. The content has been reviewed, consolidated, and reorganized to more effectively comunicate key information. The text features end-of-chapter questions and problems to aid in seamless reader comprehension and information retention.
Updated by true thought leaders in the field, the Fourth Edition of Fundamentals of Soil Behavior includes detailed information on:
- Soil formation, covering the earth's crust, the geologic cycle, rock and mineral stability, weathering, and origin of clay minerals and genesis.
- Soil mineralogy, covering atomic structure, interatomic bonding, secondary bonds, crystal notation, and clay mineral characteristics.
- Fundamental engineering characterization of soil, covering granular soils and clay minerals.
- Observing and quantifying soil fabric, covering qualitative and quantitative assessment of soil fabric.
- Transport of heat, fluid, and electrical current.
- The fundamentals of volume change, deformation, and strength properties of soils.
- The impact of time and temperature changes on soil behavior.
Providing an understanding of soil behavior, a fundamental requisite to a wide variety of engineering applications including foundation design and construction, earthwork construction, and geotechnical engineering, Fundamentals of Soil Behavior is an essential learning resource for geotechnical and geoenvironmental engineers, geologists, geophysicists, and students studying geotechnical engineering and granular materials.
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Persons
James K. Mitchell, ScD, Dist.M.ASCE, NAE, NAS (1930-2023) was Emeritus Cahill Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of California, Berkeley, and Emeritus University Distinguished Professor at Virginia Polytechnic Institute.
Kenichi Soga, PHD, NAE, FREng, FASCE, FICE is Donald H. McLaughlin Chair in Mineral Engineering and Distinguished Professor at the University of California, Berkeley.
Catherine O'Sullivan, PHD, FIEI, FICE is Professor of Particulate Soil Mechanics in the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Imperial College London.
Content
Preface xiii
List of Symbols xv
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Soil Behavior in Civil and Environmental Engineering 1
1.2 Scope and Organization 3
1.3 Getting Started 3
Part I Soil Formation, Composition, Characterization 5
CHAPTER 2 SOIL FORMATION 7
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 The Earth's Crust 7
2.3 Geologic Cycle and Geological Time 8
2.4 Rock and Mineral Stability 9
2.5 Weathering 10
2.6 Origin of Clay Minerals and Clay Genesis 16
2.7 Residual Soils 17
2.8 Sediment Erosion, Transport, and Deposition 20
2.9 Terrestrial Deposits 25
2.10 Mixed Continental and Marine Deposits 27
2.11 Marine Deposits 28
2.12 Chemical and Biological Deposits 31
2.13 Hard Soils and Soft Rocks 32
2.14 Fills 33
2.15 Tailings 33
2.16 Post-Depositional Changes in Sediments 34
2.17 Structure Development 39
2.18 Soil Profiles and Taxonomy 44
2.19 Concluding Comments 47
CHAPTER 3 SOIL MINEROLOGY 49
3.1 Importance of Soil Mineralogy in Geotechnical Engineering 49
3.2 Atomic Structure 50
3.3 Interatomic Bonding 51
3.4 Secondary Bonds 51
3.5 Crystals and their Properties 52
3.6 Factors Controlling Crystal Structures 55
3.7 Silicate Crystals 56
3.8 Surfaces 58
3.9 Nonclay Mineral Particles 59
3.10 Structural Units of Clay Minerals 60
3.11 Synthesis Pattern and Classification of the Clay Minerals 65
3.12 Intersheet and Interlayer Bonding in the Clay Minerals 66
3.13 The 1:1 Minerals 67
3.14 Smectite Minerals 70
3.15 Micalike Clay Minerals 73
3.16 Other Clay Minerals 74
3.17 Determination of Soil Composition 76
3.18 X-Ray Diffraction Analysis 79
3.19 Microscopy 82
3.20 Other Methods for Compositional Analysis 85
3.21 Quantitative Estimation of Soil Components 86
3.22 Concluding Comments 87
CHAPTER 4 SOIL-WATER-CHEMICAL INTERACTIONS 89
4.1 Introduction 89
4.2 Nature of Ice and Water 90
4.3 Influence of Dissolved Ions on Water Structure 91
4.4 Mechanisms for Soil-Water Interaction 92
4.5 Observations and Evidence of Structure and Properties of Adsorbed Water 96
4.6 Clays as Colloidal Particles 100
4.7 Elements of Double-Layer Theory 100
4.8 Electrostatic Forces from the DLVO Theory 105
4.9 Influences of System Variables on the Double Layer 106
4.10 Long-Range Attraction: Van Der Waals Forces 107
4.11 Net Energy of Interaction: Combining Electrostatic and Van Der Waals Forces 108
4.12 Limitations of the DLVO Layer Model 110
4.13 Clay Particle Interactions Deduced from Molecular Simulations 114
4.14 Cation Exchange--General Considerations 116
4.15 Theories for Ion Exchange 117
4.16 Soil-Chemical Interactions 118
4.17 Concluding Comments 119
CHAPTER 5 FUNDAMENTAL ENGINEERING CHARACTERIZATION OF SOILS 123
5.1 Introduction 123
5.2 Particle Size Distribution in Granular Soils 126
5.3 Morphological Characterization of Granular Soils 130
5.4 Texture of Granular Soils 135
5.5 Interparticle Friction 137
5.6 Sand Particle Stiffness 146
5.7 Sand Particle Strength 148
5.8 Packing Density of Granular Soils and the Limits 152
5.9 Particle Sizes of Clays and Influences of Exchangeable Cations and pH 155
5.10 Atterberg Limits and Activity of Clays 157
5.11 Dominating Influence of the Clay Phase 161
5.12 Mixed Soils 162
5.13 Effects of Organic Matter 165
5.14 Concluding Comments 165
CHAPTER 6 SOIL FABRIC AND ITS MEASUREMENT 169
6.1 Introduction 169
6.2 Preparing Samples for Direct Observation of Fabric 171
6.3 Direct Observation of Soil Fabric 174
6.4 Image Processing and Analysis 185
6.5 Use of Particulate Mechanics and Numerical Modelling to Study Fabric 190
6.6 Qualitative Assessment of Fabric 191
6.7 Quantitative Assessment of Fabric 198
6.8 Void Fabric of Cohesionless Soils 207
6.9 Concluding Comments 208
Part II Engineering Properties and Behavior 211
CHAPTER 7 EFFECTIVE, INTERGRANULAR, AND TOTAL STRESS 213
7.1 Introduction 213
7.2 Principle of Effective Stress 213
7.3 Force Distributions in a Particulate System 214
7.4 Interparticle Forces in Silt, Sand, and Gravel-Sized Particles 216
7.5 Interparticle Forces in Clay-Sized Particles 225
7.6 Relating Interparticle Forces and Macroscale Stress 228
7.7 Total Potentials and Heads 231
7.8 Water Pressures 232
7.9 Assessment of Intergranular Stress 234
7.10 Assessment of Terzaghi's Effective Stress 236
7.11 Effective Stress in Unsaturated Soils 239
7.12 Concluding Comments 241
CHAPTER 8 CONDUCTION PHENOMENA 243
8.1 Introduction 243
8.2 Flow Laws and Interrelationships 243
8.3 Hydraulic Conductivity 245
8.4 Flows Through Unsaturated Soils 260
8.5 Thermal Conductivity 266
8.6 Electrical Conductivity 269
8.7 Diffusion 274
8.8 Simultaneous Flows of Water, Current, and Salts Through Soil-Coupled Flows 276
8.9 Quantification of Coupled Flows 279
8.10 Electrokinetic Phenomena 284
8.11 Transport Coefficients and the Importance of Coupled Flows 285
8.12 Compatibility--Effects of Chemical Flows on Properties 289
8.13 Electroosmosis 291
8.14 Electroosmosis Efficiency 293
8.15 Consolidation by Electroosmosis 296
8.16 Electrochemical Effects 301
8.17 Electrokinetic Remediation 303
8.18 Self-Potentials 303
8.19 Concluding Comments 305
CHAPTER 9 VOLUME CHANGE BEHAVIOR 307
9.1 Introduction 307
9.2 Factors Controlling Resistance to Volume Change 308
9.3 Fundamental Concepts in Volume Change Behavior of Fine-Grained Soils 310
9.4 Consolidation 318
9.5 Secondary Compression 322
9.6 Evolution of Fabric During Compression 324
9.7 Influence of Structure on Compression Behavior 325
9.8 The Stresses in One-Dimensional Consolidation 327
9.9 Volume Change Behavior Under Constant Stress Ratio Conditions 333
9.10 Swelling and Shrinkage of Fine-Grained Soils 334
9.11 Fundamental Concepts in Volume Change Behavior of Coarse-Grained Soils 336
9.12 Particle Deformations and Breakage During Volume Change 339
9.13 Collapsing Soils 343
9.14 Influences of Mineralogical Detail in Soil Expansion 345
9.15 Osmotic Pressure and Water Adsorption Influences on Compression and Swelling 348
9.16 Summary 353
9.17 Concluding Comments 354
CHAPTER 10 LOAD-DEFORMATION BEHAVIOR AND STRENGTH 357
10.1 Introduction 357
10.2 General Characteristics of Strength and Deformation 358
10.3 Critical State: A Useful Reference Condition 369
10.4 State Variables to Express the Void Ratio and Confining Pressure Dependency 378
10.5 Effective Strength of Sands 380
10.6 Effective Strength of Clays 385
10.7 Undrained Strength of Clays 388
10.8 Undrained Strength of Sands 392
10.9 True Cohesion 397
10.10 Prefailure Deformation of Soil 399
10.11 Linear Elastic Stiffness 402
10.12 Transition from Elastic to Plastic States 410
10.13 Evolution of Fabric During Soil Deformation 419
10.14 Influence of Fabric and Structure on Deformation and Strength 425
10.15 Intermediate Stress Effects and Stress Anisotropy 436
10.16 Concluding Comments 441
CHAPTER 11 SOME SPECIAL FEATURES OF SOIL BEHAVIOR 445
11.1 Introduction 445
11.2 Sensitivity and Its Causes 445
11.3 Property Interrelationships in Sensitive Clays 456
11.4 Behavior After Peak and Strain Localization 461
11.5 Residual State and Residual Strength 465
11.6 Undrained Cyclic Loading and Liquefaction 469
11.7 Response to Drained Cyclic Loading 480
11.8 Engineering Behavior of Mixed Soils 482
11.9 Elastic Wave Propagation 484
11.10 Fracturing of Soils 487
11.11 Dispersive Clays 491
11.12 Internal Erosion 493
11.13 Slaking 495
11.14 Concluding Comments 495
CHAPTER 12 THERMAL EFFECTS ON SOIL BEHAVIOR 497
12.1 Introduction 497
12.2 Variations of Thermal Properties of Soil With State and Environmental Conditions 499
12.3 Heat Transfer in Individual Particles and at Particle Contacts 503
12.4 Temperature Effect on Volumetric Behavior 505
12.5 Theoretical Analysis of Drained Conditions 510
12.6 Thermal Pressurization in Undrained Conditions 513
12.7 Theoretical Analysis of Undrained Conditions--Thermal Pressurization 515
12.8 Temperature Effect on Mechanical Characteristics 517
12.9 Unsaturated Soil 523
12.10 Thermo-Hydro-Mechanical Coupling 524
12.11 Thermally Driven Moisture Flow 525
12.12 An Introduction to Ground Freezing 526
12.13 Ground-Freezing Processes 529
12.14 Frost Heave and Ice Lens Formation 535
12.15 Mechanical Behavior of Frozen Soil 538
12.16 Concluding Comments 543
CHAPTER 13 TIME EFFECTS ON STRENGTH AND DEFORMATION 545
13.1 Introduction 545
13.2 General Characteristics 546
13.3 Fundamental Mechanisms of Time-Dependant Behavior: Rate Process Theory 553
13.4 Bonding, Effective Stresses, and Strength 557
13.5 Shearing Resistance as a Rate Process 562
13.6 Interpreting Soil Behavior Using Rate Process Theory 562
13.7 Rate Effects on Stress-Strain Relationships of Clay 565
13.8 Rate Effects on Stress-Strain Relationships of Sand 570
13.9 Rate Effects on Stiffness and Cyclic Response 572
13.10 Creep 574
13.11 Creep Rupture 586
13.12 Stress Relaxation 592
13.13 Aging 592
13.14 Mechanisms for Soil Property Changes During Sand Aging 599
13.15 Inertia Effects and Rapid Flows 603
13.16 Concluding Comments 604
Questions and Problems 604
References 607
Index 651
List of Symbols
- a
- area
- a
- coefficient for harmonics
- a
- cross-sectional area of a tube
- a
- crystallographic axis direction or distance
- a
- effective cluster contact area
- a
- volumetric air content
- a
- thermal diffusivity
- a c
- effective area of interparticle contact
- a m
- coefficient of compressibility with respect to changes in water content
- a t
- coefficient of compressibility with respect to changes in (s - u a )
- a v
- coefficient of compressibility in one dimensional compression
- A
- activity
- A
- area
- A
- creep rate parameter
- A
- cross section area normal to the direction of flow
- A
- Hamaker constant
- A
- long-range interparticle attractions
- A
- Skempton's pore pressure parameter
- A
- thermal diffusivity
- A
- van der Waal's constant
- A´
- short-range attractive stress
- pore pressure parameter = ?u/?(s1 - s 3)
- A 0
- concentration of charges on pore wall
- A 0
- surface charge density per unit pore volume
- A c
- solid contact area
- A f
- area of flow passages
- pore pressure parameter at failure
- A h
- Hamaker constant
- A i
- state parameter in disturbed state
- A i
- total surface area of the ith grain
- state parameter at equilibrium
- A s
- specific surface area per unit weight of solids
- Å
- Angstrom unit = 1 × 10-10 m
- b
- coefficient of harmonics
- b
- crystallographic axis direction or distance
- b
- intermediate stress parameter
- B
- parameter in rate process equation = X(kT/h)
- B
- Bishop's pore water pressure coefficient
- B q
- grain breakage parameter
- B r
- Hardin's relative breakage parameter
- c
- cohesion
- c
- cohesion intercept in total stress
- c
- concentration
- c
- molar concentration
- c
- crystallographic axis direction or distance
- c
- undrained shear strength
- c
- velocity of light
- c´
- cohesion intercept in effective stress
- c 0
- equilibrium solution concentration, bulk solution concentration
- c 0 +
- cation equilibrium solution concentration
- c 0 -
- anion equilibrium solution concentration
- c a
- mid-plane anion concentration
- c e , c´ e
- Hvorslev's cohesion parameter
- cec
- cation exchange capacity
- c ic , c c
- mid-plane cation concentration
- c i0
- equilibrium solution concentration
- c m
- mid-plane concentration
- c´ m
- mid-plane anion concentration
- c u
- undrained shear strength
- c v
- coefficient of consolidation
- c w
- concentration of water
- C
- capacitance
- C
- chemical concentration
- C
- clay content by weight
- C
- composition
- C
- electrical capacitance
- C
- short-range repulsive force between contacting particles
- C
- soil compressibility
- C
- speed of light in vacuum or in air, 3 × 108 m/sec
- C
- volumetric heat
- C
- volumetric heat capacity
- C c
- compression index
- intrinsic compression index
- C l
- compressibility of pore fluid
- C n
- coordination number
- CR
- compression ratio
- CRR
- cyclic resistance ratio
- C s
- compressibility of a solid
- C s
- shape coefficient
- C s
- swelling index
- C u
- coefficient of uniformity
- C u
- compressibility of soil skeleton by pore pressure change
- C W
- compressibility of water
- C a , C ae
- coefficient of secondary compression
- d
- diameter
- d
- distance
- d 10
- sieve size that 10% of the particles by weight pass through
- d 60
- sieve size that 60% of the particles by weight pass through
- dx
- incremental horizontal displacement at peak
- dy
- incremental vertical displacement at peak
- D
- diameter of particle
- D
- dielectric constant, relative permittivity
- D
- diffusion coefficient
- D
- deviator stress
- stress level = D/D max
- D 0
- molecular diffusivity of water vapor in air
- D 0
- self-diffusion coefficient
- D 50
- sieve size that 50% of the particles by weight pass through
- D eff
- effective diameter
- D eV
- isothermal vapor diffusivity
- D max
- strength at the beginning of creep
- D R , D r
- relative density
- D s
- characteristic grain size
- D TV
- thermal vapor diffusivity
- D *
- effective diffusion coefficient
- e
- electronic charge = 4.8029 × 10-10 esu
- = 1.60206 × 10-10 coulomb
- e
- void ratio
- e 0
- initial void ratio
- intrinsic void ratio under effective vertical stress of 100 kPa
- e c
- intracluster void ratio
- e cs
- void ratio at critical state
- e ff
- void ratio at failure
- e g , e G
- void ratio of the granular phase, granular void ratio
- e ini
- initial void ratio
- e L
- void ratio at liquid limit
- e max
- maximum void ratio
- e min
- minimum void ratio
- e p
- intercluster void ratio
- e T
- total void ratio
- E
- experimental activation energy
- E
- potential energy
- E
- Young's modulus
- E
- voltage, electrical potential
- E 50
- secant modulus at 50 percent of peak strength
- E max
- small strain Young's modulus
- rebound modulus
- ESP
- exchangeable sodium percentage
- E(ß)
- distribution function for interparticle contact plane normals
- f
- force acting on a flow unit
- f
- frequency
- f i
- fraction of particles between two sizes
- f n
- normal force
- f t
- tangential force
- F
- force of electrostatic attraction
- F
- formation factor
- F
- free energy
- F
- freezing index
- F
- pressure-temperature parameter
- F
- tensile strength
- F, F 0
- Faraday constant = 96,500 coulombs
- partial molar free energy on adsorption
- F d
- free energy of the double layer per unit area at a plate spacing of 2d
- ?F
- free energy of activation
- F E
- electrical force per unit length
- F H
- hydraulic seepage force per unit length causing flow
- FI
- fabric index
- F 8
- free energy of a single non-interacting double layer
- g
- acceleration due to gravity
- G
- shear modulus
- G
- source-sink
- G 1000
- shear modulus measured after 1000 minutes of...
