Mixing and Compounding of Polymers

1 - Foreword [Seite 8]
2 - Contents [Seite 10]
3 - Part I: Mechanisms and Theory [Seite 26]
3.1 - 1Basic Concepts [Seite 28]
3.2 - 2Mixing of Miscible Liquids [Seite 30]
3.2.1 - 2.1Introduction [Seite 30]
3.2.2 - 2.2Continuum Analysis of Stretching [Seite 33]
3.2.2.1 - 2.2.1Deformation Analysis [Seite 33]
3.2.2.2 - 2.2.2Rate Analysis [Seite 38]
3.2.2.3 - 2.2.3Interface Stretching in Simple Flows [Seite 41]
3.2.2.3.1 - 2.2.3.1Simple Shear: Deformation Analysis [Seite 41]
3.2.2.3.2 - 2.2.3.2Simple Shear: Rate Analysis [Seite 42]
3.2.2.3.3 - 2.2.3.3Planar Elongation: Deformation Analysis [Seite 43]
3.2.2.3.4 - 2.2.3.4Planar Elongation: Rate Analysis [Seite 44]
3.2.2.4 - 2.2.4Stretching Behavior and Mixing Flows [Seite 45]
3.2.3 - 2.3Chaos and Chaotic Flows [Seite 46]
3.2.3.1 - 2.3.1An Example Flow [Seite 46]
3.2.3.2 - 2.3.2Poincaré Sections [Seite 47]
3.2.3.3 - 2.3.3Lyapunov Exponents [Seite 50]
3.2.3.4 - 2.3.4Periodic Points [Seite 53]
3.2.4 - 2.4Mixing in Chaotic Flows [Seite 54]
3.2.4.1 - 2.4.1Global Chaos [Seite 54]
3.2.4.2 - 2.4.2Universal Stretching Properties [Seite 55]
3.2.4.2.1 - 2.4.2.1Growth of Average Stretch [Seite 56]
3.2.4.2.2 - 2.4.2.2Global Stretching Distribution [Seite 57]
3.2.4.2.3 - 2.4.2.3Spatial Distribution of Stretch [Seite 59]
3.2.4.2.4 - 2.4.2.4Implications for Flow Selection [Seite 59]
3.2.5 - 2.5Other Considerations [Seite 61]
3.2.5.1 - 2.5.1Rheological Effects [Seite 61]
3.2.5.2 - 2.5.2Molecular Diffusion [Seite 61]
3.2.6 - 2.6Summary [Seite 62]
3.2.7 - Acknowledgements [Seite 63]
3.2.8 - References [Seite 63]
3.3 - 3Mixing of Immiscible Liquids [Seite 66]
3.3.1 - 3.1Introduction [Seite 67]
3.3.2 - 3.2Mixing Mechanisms [Seite 68]
3.3.3 - 3.3Distributive Mixing (Ca >> Cacrit) [Seite 71]
3.3.3.1 - 3.3.1Affine Deformation [Seite 71]
3.3.3.2 - 3.3.2Efficient Mixing: Stretching, Folding, and Reorienting [Seite 73]
3.3.3.3 - 3.3.3Static Mixers [Seite 75]
3.3.3.3.1 - 3.3.3.1Multiflux [Seite 76]
3.3.3.3.2 - 3.3.3.2Ross [Seite 78]
3.3.3.3.3 - 3.3.3.3Sulzer [Seite 79]
3.3.3.3.4 - 3.3.3.4Kenics [Seite 81]
3.3.3.4 - 3.3.4Optimization Kenics Mixers [Seite 82]
3.3.3.4.1 - 3.3.4.1Optimizing RL Designs [Seite 82]
3.3.3.4.2 - 3.3.4.2Optimizing for Non-Newtonian Fluids [Seite 83]
3.3.3.4.3 - 3.3.4.3Optimizing RR Designs [Seite 85]
3.3.3.4.4 - 3.3.4.4Scale-up: Use of Structure Radius and Scale of Segregation [Seite 86]
3.3.3.4.5 - 3.3.4.5Mapping the Structure [Seite 88]
3.3.3.4.6 - 3.3.4.6Conclusions [Seite 91]
3.3.3.5 - 3.3.5Dynamic Mixers [Seite 91]
3.3.3.5.1 - 3.3.5.1Co-Rotating Twin-Screw Extruders [Seite 91]
3.3.3.5.2 - 3.3.5.2Single Screw Extruders [Seite 94]
3.3.3.5.3 - 3.3.5.3The Rotational Arc Mixer (RAM) [Seite 96]
3.3.3.6 - 3.3.6Understanding Mixing: the Lid-Driven Cavity Flow [Seite 96]
3.3.3.6.1 - 3.3.6.1Geometry [Seite 96]
3.3.3.6.2 - 3.3.6.2Periodic Points [Seite 97]
3.3.3.6.3 - 3.3.6.3The Mapping Method [Seite 101]
3.3.3.6.4 - 3.3.6.4Accuracy of the Mapping Method [Seite 102]
3.3.3.6.5 - 3.3.6.5Optimization by Using the Mapping Method [Seite 103]
3.3.3.6.6 - 3.3.6.6Adding Inertia [Seite 109]
3.3.3.6.7 - 3.3.6.73-D Cavity [Seite 111]
3.3.4 - 3.4Dispersive Mixing Ca ~ Cacrit [Seite 115]
3.3.4.1 - 3.4.1Rayleigh Disturbances [Seite 115]
3.3.4.2 - 3.4.2Disintegration of Threads at Rest [Seite 117]
3.3.4.3 - 3.4.3Disintegration of Threads During Flow [Seite 121]
3.3.4.4 - 3.4.4Flow Classification [Seite 123]
3.3.4.5 - 3.4.5Drop Deformation and Breakup [Seite 127]
3.3.4.6 - 3.4.6Step-Wise Equilibrium versus Dynamic Breakup [Seite 133]
3.3.4.6.1 - 3.4.6.1Two Mechanisms [Seite 133]
3.3.4.6.2 - 3.4.6.2Plane Hyperbolic Flow [Seite 134]
3.3.4.6.3 - 3.4.6.3Simple Shear Flow [Seite 135]
3.3.4.7 - 3.4.7Theoretical Models for Drop Evolution [Seite 139]
3.3.5 - 3.5Coalescence and Influence of Surfactants [Seite 149]
3.3.5.1 - 3.5.1Collision of Drops [Seite 149]
3.3.5.2 - 3.5.2Film Drainage [Seite 150]
3.3.5.2.1 - 3.5.2.1Theoretical [Seite 150]
3.3.5.2.2 - 3.5.2.2Restrictions of the Drainage Models [Seite 154]
3.3.5.2.3 - 3.5.2.2Drainage Probability [Seite 155]
3.3.5.2.4 - 3.5.2.3Experimental [Seite 157]
3.3.5.3 - 3.5.3Coalescence Probability [Seite 158]
3.3.5.4 - 3.5.4Combination of Breakup and Coalescence [Seite 160]
3.3.5.5 - 3.5.5Influence of Surfactants on Deformation [Seite 163]
3.3.5.5.1 - 3.5.5.1Surface Tension Gradients [Seite 164]
3.3.5.5.2 - 3.5.5.2Equation of State [Seite 165]
3.3.5.5.3 - 3.5.5.3Drop Shapes [Seite 165]
3.3.5.5.4 - 3.5.5.4Modes of Drop Breakage [Seite 165]
3.3.5.6 - 3.5.6Influence of Surfactants on Coalescence [Seite 172]
3.3.6 - 3.6Polymer Blending in Practice [Seite 172]
3.3.6.1 - 3.6.1A Two-Zone Model [Seite 172]
3.3.6.1.1 - 3.6.1.1Principle [Seite 172]
3.3.6.1.2 - 3.6.1.2Numerical Approach [Seite 173]
3.3.6.1.3 - 3.6.1.3Effective Viscosity [Seite 174]
3.3.6.1.4 - 3.6.1.4Results [Seite 175]
3.3.6.1.5 - 3.6.1.5Influence of Material Parameters [Seite 177]
3.3.6.1.6 - 3.6.1.6Influence of Processing Conditions [Seite 178]
3.3.6.2 - 3.6.2Passage through a Die [Seite 180]
3.3.6.3 - 3.6.3Phase Inversion [Seite 181]
3.3.6.4 - 3.6.4Journal Bearing: a Second Model Flow [Seite 183]
3.3.6.5 - 3.6.5Dynamics of Mixing [Seite 184]
3.3.7 - 3.7Rheology and Morphology [Seite 185]
3.3.7.1 - 3.7.1Constitutive Modeling of Dispersive Mixtures [Seite 185]
3.3.7.2 - 3.7.2Diffuse Interface Modeling [Seite 190]
3.3.8 - 3.8Conclusions [Seite 195]
3.3.9 - APPENDIX 3.A: Determination of Interfacial Tension [Seite 197]
3.3.10 - Nomenclature [Seite 199]
3.3.11 - References [Seite 202]
3.4 - 4Dispersive Mixing of Solid Additives [Seite 208]
3.4.1 - 4.1Introduction [Seite 208]
3.4.2 - 4.2Continuum Dispersion Models [Seite 210]
3.4.2.1 - 4.2.1Agglomerate Structure and Cohesiveness [Seite 210]
3.4.2.2 - 4.2.2Models for Agglomerate Dispersion [Seite 212]
3.4.3 - 4.3Discrete Dispersion Models [Seite 224]
3.4.4 - 4.4Dispersion Mechanisms and Modelling Based on Experimental Observations [Seite 228]
3.4.5 - 4.5Concluding Remarks [Seite 235]
3.4.6 - Nomenclature [Seite 236]
3.4.7 - References [Seite 239]
3.5 - 5A Kinematic Approach to Distributive Mixing [Seite 242]
3.5.1 - 5.1Introduction [Seite 242]
3.5.2 - 5.2Kinematic Approach to Distributive Mixing [Seite 243]
3.5.3 - 5.3Application to Simple Flow Configurations [Seite 245]
3.5.3.1 - 5.3.1Simple Shear Flow [Seite 245]
3.5.3.2 - 5.3.2Pure Elongational Flow [Seite 246]
3.5.4 - 5.4Application to a Two-Dimensional Flow Configuration [Seite 248]
3.5.5 - 5.5Experimental Study of a Two-Dimensional, Nonstationary Flow [Seite 252]
3.5.6 - 5.6Application to Three-Dimensional Flow Configurations [Seite 255]
3.5.6.1 - 5.6.1Periodic Shearing Flow [Seite 255]
3.5.6.2 - 5.6.2Non-Stationary Flow within an Internal Mixer [Seite 258]
3.5.7 - 5.7Discussion [Seite 260]
3.5.8 - Nomenclature [Seite 263]
3.5.9 - References [Seite 264]
3.6 - 6Number of Passage Distribution Functions [Seite 266]
3.6.1 - 6.1Introduction [Seite 266]
3.6.2 - 6.2Theory of Number of Passage Distribution (NPD) Functions [Seite 267]
3.6.3 - 6.3NPD Functions in Batch and Flow Recirculating Systems [Seite 268]
3.6.4 - 6.4NPD Functions in Some Model Systems [Seite 270]
3.6.4.1 - 6.4.1Well-Stirred Batch Vessel with Recirculation [Seite 270]
3.6.4.2 - 6.4.2Plug Flow with Recirculation [Seite 271]
3.6.4.3 - 6.4.3Well-Stirred Continuous Mixing Vessel with Recirculation [Seite 272]
3.6.5 - 6.5Applications of NPD Functions to Dispersive Mixing [Seite 273]
3.6.5.1 - 6.5.1Dispersive Mixing [Seite 273]
3.6.5.2 - 6.5.2Modeling of Mixers [Seite 274]
3.6.6 - Acknowledgment [Seite 274]
3.6.7 - References [Seite 275]
3.7 - 7Mixing Measures [Seite 276]
3.7.1 - 7.1Introduction [Seite 276]
3.7.2 - 7.2Entropic Measures [Seite 278]
3.7.2.1 - 7.2.1Shannon Entropy [Seite 278]
3.7.2.2 - 7.2.2Renyi Entropies [Seite 278]
3.7.2.2.1 - 7.2.2.1Applications [Seite 279]
3.7.2.3 - 7.2.3Multi-Component Shannon Entropy [Seite 281]
3.7.2.3.1 - 7.2.3.1Application: Simultaneous Dispersive and Distributive Mixing Index [Seite 283]
3.7.2.4 - 7.2.4Modified Multi-Component Shannon Entropy [Seite 284]
3.7.2.4.1 - 7.2.4.1Applications to Extruders [Seite 285]
3.7.2.4.2 - 7.2.4.2Applications to Micromixers [Seite 287]
3.7.2.5 - 7.2.5Renyi Generalized Entropies and Fractal Properties [Seite 288]
3.7.2.5.1 - 7.2.5.1Applications [Seite 288]
3.7.3 - 7.3Summary [Seite 289]
3.7.4 - References [Seite 290]
4 - Part II: Mixing Equipment - Modeling, Simulation, Visualization [Seite 292]
4.1 - 8Flow Field Analysis of a Banbury Mixer [Seite 294]
4.1.1 - 8.1Introduction [Seite 294]
4.1.2 - 8.2Flow Simulations [Seite 297]
4.1.2.1 - 8.2.1Description of Method [Seite 297]
4.1.2.2 - 8.2.2Velocity Profiles and Pressure Distributions [Seite 299]
4.1.3 - 8.3Flow Field Characterization [Seite 303]
4.1.3.1 - 8.3.1Dispersive Mixing [Seite 303]
4.1.3.2 - 8.3.2Distributive Mixing [Seite 309]
4.1.4 - 8.4Summary and Conclusions [Seite 320]
4.1.5 - Nomenclature [Seite 320]
4.1.6 - References [Seite 321]
4.2 - 9CFD Simulations of Static Mixers: A Survey [Seite 324]
4.2.1 - 9.1Static Mixers in the Polymer Industry [Seite 324]
4.2.2 - 9.2Performance Criteria [Seite 326]
4.2.2.1 - 9.2.1Pressure Drop [Seite 327]
4.2.2.2 - 9.2.2Shearing Action [Seite 328]
4.2.2.3 - 9.2.3Mixing Performance [Seite 329]
4.2.2.4 - 9.2.4Mixing Homogeneity [Seite 331]
4.2.2.5 - 9.2.5CFD Methods [Seite 332]
4.2.3 - 9.3Numerical Modelling Principles [Seite 334]
4.2.3.1 - 9.3.1Simulation Flowchart [Seite 334]
4.2.3.2 - 9.3.2Equations of Change [Seite 335]
4.2.3.3 - 9.3.3Discretization [Seite 336]
4.2.3.4 - 9.3.4Solvers [Seite 338]
4.2.3.5 - 9.3.5Particle Tracking [Seite 339]
4.2.4 - 9.4Summary of the Main Hydrodynamic Predictions [Seite 341]
4.2.4.1 - 9.4.1Pressure Drop [Seite 341]
4.2.4.2 - 9.4.2Poincaré Maps [Seite 343]
4.2.4.3 - 9.4.3Residence Time Distribution [Seite 343]
4.2.4.4 - 9.4.4Overall Deformation and Shear [Seite 344]
4.2.4.5 - 9.4.5Transverse Flow [Seite 345]
4.2.5 - 9.5Summary of the Main Results on Mixing Evaluation [Seite 346]
4.2.5.1 - 9.5.1Segregation Scale [Seite 346]
4.2.5.2 - 9.5.2Intensity of Segregation [Seite 347]
4.2.5.3 - 9.5.3Chaos Theory [Seite 348]
4.2.6 - 9.6Mixer Performance Comparison [Seite 349]
4.2.7 - 9.7Other Mixing Evaluation Studies [Seite 351]
4.2.8 - 9.8Simulation Methods, Software Tools [Seite 351]
4.2.9 - 9.9Industrial Perspective and what the Future Holds [Seite 354]
4.2.9.1 - 9.9.1Single Phase Fluids [Seite 354]
4.2.9.2 - 9.9.2Multiphase Fluids [Seite 354]
4.2.9.3 - 9.9.3Multi-Scale Modeling [Seite 355]
4.2.10 - Nomenclature [Seite 356]
4.2.11 - References [Seite 358]
4.3 - 10Flow Visualization in Internal Mixers [Seite 362]
4.3.1 - 10.1Introduction [Seite 362]
4.3.2 - 10.2Historical Development of Internal Mixers [Seite 364]
4.3.3 - 10.3Flow Visualization [Seite 367]
4.3.3.1 - 10.3.1Flow Visualization by Various Sensors [Seite 370]
4.3.3.2 - 10.3.2Flow Visualization through Transparent Windows [Seite 376]
4.3.4 - References [Seite 384]
4.4 - 11Continuous Equipment Simulation - Single Screw [Seite 388]
4.4.1 - 11.1Introduction [Seite 388]
4.4.2 - 11.2General Equations for the Creeping Flows of Generalized-Newtonian Fluids [Seite 389]
4.4.3 - 11.3Geometrical Considerations and Approximations [Seite 392]
4.4.4 - 11.4Overview of Previous Work [Seite 394]
4.4.5 - 11.5Description of Applied Modeling Approaches [Seite 396]
4.4.5.1 - 11.5.1Two-Dimensional Formulation [Seite 396]
4.4.5.2 - 11.5.2Three-Dimensional Formulation [Seite 398]
4.4.6 - 11.6Predicted Results [Seite 401]
4.4.6.1 - 11.6.1Isothermal Flow of a Newtonian Fluid [Seite 401]
4.4.6.2 - 11.6.2Isothermal Flow of a Power-Law Non-Newtonian Fluid [Seite 402]
4.4.6.3 - 11.6.3Non-Isothermal Flow of Non-Newtonian Fluids [Seite 405]
4.4.7 - Nomenclature [Seite 410]
4.4.8 - References [Seite 412]
4.5 - 12Modeling Flow in Twin Screw Extrusion [Seite 414]
4.5.1 - 12.1Introduction [Seite 414]
4.5.2 - 12.2Modular Self-Wiping Co-Rotating Twin Screw Extruders [Seite 416]
4.5.2.1 - 12.2.1Technology [Seite 416]
4.5.2.2 - 12.2.2Flow in Individual Elements [Seite 417]
4.5.2.3 - 12.2.3Heat Balance [Seite 421]
4.5.2.4 - 12.2.4Melting [Seite 422]
4.5.2.5 - 12.2.5Composite Modular Machine Behavior [Seite 423]
4.5.2.6 - 12.2.6Global Machine Software [Seite 424]
4.5.3 - 12.3Tangential Counter-Rotating Twin Screw Extruders [Seite 425]
4.5.3.1 - 12.3.1Technology [Seite 425]
4.5.3.2 - 12.3.2Flow in Individual Elements [Seite 425]
4.5.3.3 - 12.3.3Heat Balance [Seite 429]
4.5.3.4 - 12.3.4Composite Modular Machine Behavior [Seite 430]
4.5.4 - 12.4Intermeshing Counter-Rotating Twin Screw Extruders [Seite 431]
4.5.4.1 - 12.4.1Technology [Seite 431]
4.5.4.2 - 12.4.2Flow in Individual Elements [Seite 433]
4.5.4.3 - 12.4.3Melting [Seite 434]
4.5.4.4 - 12.4.4Composite Modular Machine Behavior [Seite 434]
4.5.5 - 12.5Continuous Mixers [Seite 435]
4.5.5.1 - 12.5.1Technology [Seite 435]
4.5.5.2 - 12.5.2Flow Modeling [Seite 438]
4.5.6 - References [Seite 439]
4.6 - 13Continuous Equipment Simulation - Co-Kneader [Seite 444]
4.6.1 - 13.1Introduction [Seite 444]
4.6.2 - 13.2Machine Geometry and Working Principle [Seite 446]
4.6.2.1 - 13.2.1Screw Elements, Pins, and Barrel Liners [Seite 446]
4.6.2.2 - 13.2.2Melting [Seite 449]
4.6.3 - 13.3Modeling the Co-Kneader [Seite 451]
4.6.4 - 13.4Newtonian, Isothermal Analysis of Continuous Mixers [Seite 452]
4.6.4.1 - 13.4.1Twin-Screw Extruders [Seite 452]
4.6.4.2 - 13.4.2The Co-Kneader [Seite 456]
4.6.5 - 13.5Mixing [Seite 459]
4.6.6 - 13.6Experimental [Seite 460]
4.6.6.1 - 13.6.1Throughput versus Pressure Characteristic [Seite 462]
4.6.6.2 - 13.6.2Filled Length [Seite 465]
4.6.6.3 - 13.6.3Pressure Gradients [Seite 466]
4.6.6.4 - 13.6.4Residence Time Distribution [Seite 468]
4.6.7 - 13.7Nonisothermal, Non-Newtonian Analysis [Seite 470]
4.6.8 - 13.8Outlook [Seite 470]
4.6.9 - Nomenclature [Seite 472]
4.6.10 - References [Seite 473]
4.7 - 14Continuous Equipment Simulation - Mixing Devices [Seite 476]
4.7.1 - 14.1Static Mixers [Seite 477]
4.7.2 - 14.2Mixing Heads in Single Screw Extrusion [Seite 489]
4.7.3 - 14.3Conclusions [Seite 495]
4.7.4 - References [Seite 495]
4.8 - 15 Continuous Process Visualization: Visual Observation, On-Line Monitoring, Model-Fluid Extrusion and Simulation [Seite 498]
4.8.1 - 15.1Introduction [Seite 498]
4.8.1.1 - 15.1.1Overview [Seite 500]
4.8.2 - 15.2Techniques for Visualization of Polymer Extrusion and Compounding [Seite 504]
4.8.2.1 - 15.2.1Experimental Simulation with a Simple Mixer and Real Material [Seite 504]
4.8.2.1.1 - 15.2.1.1Melting of Polymer Pellets [Seite 504]
4.8.2.1.2 - 15.2.1.2Melting of Polymer Powders [Seite 509]
4.8.2.1.3 - 15.2.1.3Melting of Polymer Blends [Seite 509]
4.8.2.1.4 - 15.2.1.4Melting of Polymer/Rubber Blends [Seite 512]
4.8.2.1.5 - 15.2.1.5Visualization of Morphological Transformations during Mixed Melting: the Phase Inversion Phenomenon [Seite 514]
4.8.2.1.6 - 15.2.1.6 Visualization of Morphological Transformations during Mixed Melting: Direct Observation and Torque Monitoring of Miscible Blends with Extremely Low Viscosity Ratio (= 0.01) [Seite 516]
4.8.2.2 - 15.2.2Model Fluid Extrusion: Real Mixer with a Simple Fluid [Seite 517]
4.8.2.2.1 - 15.2.2.1Visualization of Flow in Extruders using Model Fluids [Seite 518]
4.8.2.2.2 - 15.2.2.2Visualization of Glass Fiber Dispersion in a Model Fluid [Seite 520]
4.8.2.3 - 15.2.3Processing with Continuous Equipment and Real Polymers [Seite 521]
4.8.2.3.1 - 15.2.3.1Visualization of the Extrudate at the Die Exit [Seite 521]
4.8.2.3.2 - 15.2.3.2Visualization of Fluid Flows in a Fixed Geometry [Seite 522]
4.8.2.3.3 - 15.2.3.3In-Line Sampling [Seite 525]
4.8.2.3.4 - 15.2.3.4On-Line Microscopy [Seite 525]
4.8.2.3.5 - 15.2.3.5Point Measurements: Characterization of Melting and Mixing Time with the Residence Time Distribution [Seite 529]
4.8.2.3.6 - 15.2.3.6Visualization of Solid Transport and the Onset of Melting by Direct Observation [Seite 539]
4.8.2.3.7 - 15.2.3.7Visualization of the Melting Zone by Direct Observation [Seite 541]
4.8.2.3.8 - 15.2.3.8Visualization and On-line Monitoring using Highly-Instrumented Extruders [Seite 545]
4.8.2.3.9 - 15.2.3.9Visualization of the Melting of Polymer Blends [Seite 556]
4.8.2.3.10 - 15.2.3.10Visualization of Phase Inversion during Polymer Blending [Seite 559]
4.8.2.3.11 - 15.2.3.11Visualization of Mixing of Polymer Pellets with Mineral Filler [Seite 560]
4.8.2.3.12 - 15.2.3.12Characterization of Energy Dissipation in the Melting Zone: Pulse Perturbation Method and Dynamic Monitoring [Seite 560]
4.8.2.3.13 - 15.2.3.13Characterization of the Twin Screw Extrusion Process from the Steady-State [Seite 567]
4.8.3 - 15.3Compounding Principles and Practical Examples [Seite 572]
4.8.3.1 - 15.3.1Melting Zone Extrusion and Mixing [Seite 572]
4.8.3.1.1 - 15.3.1.1Melting of Polymer/Polymer Blends [Seite 573]
4.8.3.1.2 - 15.3.1.2Melting of Polymer/Filler Blends [Seite 576]
4.8.3.2 - 15.3.2Mixing after Melting [Seite 577]
4.8.3.3 - 15.3.3Dispersive Mixing with Phase Inversion [Seite 579]
4.8.3.3.1 - 15.3.3.1Mixing of Plastic/Rubber Blends with High Viscosity Ratio (> 3.5) [Seite 579]
4.8.3.3.2 - 15.3.3.2Mixing of Plastic/Rubber Blends with Low Viscosity Ratio (< 0.28) [Seite 579]
4.8.3.3.3 - 15.3.3.3 Mixing of Plastic/Rubber Blends with Extremely Low Viscosity Ratio (<< 0.1) [Seite 580]
4.8.3.3.4 - 15.3.3.4 Mixing of Plastic/Rubber Blends: Blending with in situ Grafting [Seite 581]
4.8.3.4 - 15.3.4Melting and Mixing Dynamics in Extrusion [Seite 581]
4.8.3.5 - 15.3.5Unstable Flow during Single Screw Extrusion [Seite 584]
4.8.3.6 - 15.3.6Unstable Flow during Twin Screw Extrusion [Seite 587]
4.8.3.7 - 15.3.7Visualization and Monitoring Applied to Process Control [Seite 590]
4.8.4 - 15.4Summary [Seite 594]
4.8.5 - 15.5Concluding Remarks [Seite 596]
4.8.6 - References [Seite 597]
4.9 - 16Scale-Up of Mixing Equipment [Seite 602]
4.9.1 - 16.1Similarity [Seite 602]
4.9.2 - 16.2Systems [Seite 603]
4.9.3 - 16.3Dimensionless Groups [Seite 604]
4.9.3.1 - 16.3.1Global Treatment [Seite 604]
4.9.3.2 - 16.3.2Zone-Based Treatment [Seite 607]
4.9.3.2.1 - 16.3.2.1Melt Conveying Section [Seite 607]
4.9.3.2.2 - 16.3.2.2Melting Sections [Seite 610]
4.9.3.2.2.1 - 16.3.2.2.1Compact Solid Bed [Seite 610]
4.9.3.2.2.2 - 16.3.2.2.2Dispersive Melting [Seite 612]
4.9.3.2.3 - 16.3.2.3Solid Conveying Sections [Seite 613]
4.9.3.2.4 - 16.3.2.4Mixing in Melt Conveying Sections [Seite 616]
4.9.3.2.4.1 - 16.3.2.4.1Miscible Melts [Seite 616]
4.9.3.2.4.2 - 16.3.2.4.2Immiscible Melts [Seite 616]
4.9.3.2.4.3 - 16.3.2.4.3Solid/Melt Systems [Seite 617]
4.9.4 - 16.4Scale-Up, Scale-Down Rules [Seite 621]
4.9.4.1 - 16.4.1Continuous, Steady-State Processes [Seite 621]
4.9.4.1.1 - 16.4.1.1Melt Extruder and Melt-Dominated Smooth-Barrel Plasticizing Extruder [Seite 624]
4.9.4.1.1.1 - 16.4.1.1.1Identical Melt Output Temperatures and Identical Temperature Profiles over the Dimensionless Extruder Length [Seite 624]
4.9.4.1.1.2 - 16.4.1.1.2Different Temperatures for the Model and Main Machine [Seite 632]
4.9.4.1.2 - 16.4.1.2Rubber Extruder [Seite 635]
4.9.4.1.3 - 16.4.1.3Grooved Barrel Extruder [Seite 637]
4.9.4.1.4 - 16.4.1.4Co-Rotating Twin Screw Extruder [Seite 637]
4.9.4.1.5 - 16.4.1.5Counter Rotating Twin Screw Extruder [Seite 647]
4.9.4.1.6 - 16.4.1.6Non-Intermeshing Counter Rotating Twin Screw Kneader [Seite 648]
4.9.4.1.7 - 16.4.1.7Buss Kneader [Seite 651]
4.9.4.1.8 - 16.4.1.8Mixing Rolls [Seite 654]
4.9.4.1.9 - 16.4.1.9Mixing Elements [Seite 654]
4.9.4.2 - 16.4.2Discontinuous Processes [Seite 656]
4.9.4.2.1 - 16.4.2.1Internal Mixers [Seite 656]
4.9.4.2.2 - 16.4.2.2Mechanically Agitated Vessels [Seite 661]
4.9.5 - References [Seite 665]
4.10 - 17Scale-Down of Mixing Equipment: Microfluidics [Seite 670]
4.10.1 - 17.1Introduction [Seite 670]
4.10.2 - 17.2Mixing at Small Scales: Dimensionless Groups [Seite 671]
4.10.3 - 17.3Distributive Mixing at Small Scales [Seite 674]
4.10.3.1 - 17.3.1Passive versus Active Actuation [Seite 675]
4.10.3.2 - 17.3.2Passive Mixers: Design Options [Seite 676]
4.10.3.3 - 17.3.3Staggered Herringbone Mixer [Seite 676]
4.10.3.4 - 17.3.4Barrier-Embedded Static Mixers [Seite 684]
4.10.3.5 - 17.3.5Serpentine Channels [Seite 689]
4.10.4 - 17.4Active Mixers: Design Options [Seite 690]
4.10.4.1 - 17.4.1Neutral Beads [Seite 690]
4.10.4.2 - 17.4.2Magnetic Beads [Seite 695]
4.10.4.3 - 17.4.3Coupled Electrostatics and Hydrodynamics [Seite 698]
4.10.4.4 - 17.4.4Artificial Cilia [Seite 703]
4.10.5 - 17.5Dispersive Mixing at Small Scales [Seite 709]
4.10.5.1 - 17.5.1Experimental Observations [Seite 710]
4.10.5.2 - 17.5.2Boundary Integral Simulations [Seite 713]
4.10.5.3 - 17.5.3Small Deformation Theory [Seite 719]
4.10.6 - 17.6Conclusions [Seite 720]
4.10.7 - References [Seite 722]
5 - Part III: Compounding [Seite 726]
5.1 - 18Compounding (Theory and Practice) [Seite 728]
5.1.1 - 18.1Introduction [Seite 728]
5.1.2 - 18.2Types and Characteristics of Compounds [Seite 728]
5.1.2.1 - 18.2.1Polymer Blends [Seite 729]
5.1.2.2 - 18.2.2Polymer Formulations [Seite 730]
5.1.2.3 - 18.2.3Filled Polymers (Polymer Composites) [Seite 731]
5.1.3 - 18.3Compounding Practice [Seite 734]
5.1.3.1 - 18.3.1General [Seite 734]
5.1.3.2 - 18.3.2Polymer Blends and Polymer Formulations [Seite 735]
5.1.3.3 - 18.3.3Filled Polymers [Seite 737]
5.1.3.3.1 - 18.3.3.1Setting Up a Compounding Line [Seite 737]
5.1.3.3.2 - 18.3.3.2Low Aspect Ratio Fillers [Seite 740]
5.1.3.3.3 - 18.3.3.3High Aspect Ratio Fillers [Seite 742]
5.1.3.3.4 - 18.3.3.4Nanoclays [Seite 743]
5.1.4 - 18.4Concluding Remarks [Seite 744]
5.1.5 - Abbreviations [Seite 745]
5.1.6 - References [Seite 746]
5.2 - 19Solid Additives [Seite 748]
5.2.1 - 19.1Introduction [Seite 748]
5.2.2 - 19.2Synthesis and Chemical Properties of Amorphous Silica [Seite 750]
5.2.2.1 - 19.2.1Synthesis of Amorphous Silica [Seite 750]
5.2.2.2 - 19.2.2Chemistry and Properties of Silica Surfaces [Seite 752]
5.2.2.3 - 19.2.3Silica Mixing and Compounding [Seite 757]
5.2.3 - 19.3Morphology of Filler Agglomerates [Seite 759]
5.2.3.1 - 19.3.1Particle and Pore Size Distribution [Seite 759]
5.2.3.2 - 19.3.2Dispersibility of Fine Particle Agglomerates [Seite 761]
5.2.3.3 - 19.3.3The Fractal Nature of Filler Particulates [Seite 763]
5.2.4 - 19.4Filler Reinforcement [Seite 766]
5.2.5 - 19.5Concluding Remarks [Seite 774]
5.2.6 - References [Seite 774]
5.3 - 20Compatibilizers - Mechanisms and Theory [Seite 782]
5.3.1 - 20.1Introduction [Seite 782]
5.3.2 - 20.2Parameters Affecting Wetting, Dispersion, and Adhesion [Seite 782]
5.3.3 - 20.3Fillers - Surface Modification and Interfacial Agents [Seite 783]
5.3.4 - 20.4Compatibilizers for Polymer Blends [Seite 787]
5.3.5 - Abbreviations [Seite 790]
5.3.6 - References [Seite 791]
5.4 - 21Dispersion of Two-Dimensional Nanoparticles in Polymer Melts [Seite 794]
5.4.1 - Alejandra Reyna-Valencia and Mosto Bousmina [Seite 794]
5.4.2 - 21.1Introduction [Seite 794]
5.4.3 - 21.2Clay Particle Characteristics [Seite 796]
5.4.3.1 - 21.2.1Structure [Seite 796]
5.4.3.1.1 - 21.2.1.1Characterisation by X-Ray Diffraction [Seite 798]
5.4.3.2 - 21.2.2Surface Interactions [Seite 799]
5.4.3.3 - 21.2.3Intercalation by Organic Surfactants [Seite 804]
5.4.4 - 21.3Exfoliation Process [Seite 807]
5.4.5 - 21.4Stability of the Exfoliated Structure [Seite 812]
5.4.6 - 21.5Role of Exfoliation On Macroscopic Behavior [Seite 814]
5.4.7 - 21.6Special Case: Clay Dispersion in Multiphase Systems [Seite 815]
5.4.8 - 21.7Modeling of Rheological Behavior [Seite 817]
5.4.9 - 21.8Concluding Remarks [Seite 821]
5.4.10 - Acknowledgements [Seite 822]
5.4.11 - References [Seite 822]
5.5 - 22Effect of Mixing on Properties of Compounds [Seite 826]
5.5.1 - 22.1Types of Aggregation and Interaction between Particles [Seite 826]
5.5.2 - 22.3Determination of Dispersion and Dispersion Index [Seite 829]
5.5.3 - 22.4Mixing and Dispersion in Practice [Seite 832]
5.5.3.1 - 22.4.1Agglomerate Dispersion [Seite 833]
5.5.3.1.1 - 22.4.1.1Profile of Dispersed Phase [Seite 833]
5.5.3.1.2 - 22.4.1.2Effect of Mixing Conditions [Seite 834]
5.5.3.1.3 - 22.4.1.3Effect of Surface Treatment [Seite 836]
5.5.3.2 - 22.4.2Fiber Mixing [Seite 837]
5.5.3.3 - 22.4.3Mixing of Clay Nanocomposite [Seite 838]
5.5.4 - 22.5Dispersion and Properties [Seite 839]
5.5.4.1 - 22.5.1Mechanical Properties [Seite 839]
5.5.4.1.1 - 22.5.1.1Effect of Agglomerate Dispersion [Seite 839]
5.5.4.1.2 - 22.5.1.2Effect of Interface [Seite 842]
5.5.4.2 - 22.5.2Electrical Properties [Seite 843]
5.5.4.3 - 22.5.3Properties of Clay Nanocomposites [Seite 846]
5.5.4.4 - 22.5.4Properties of Other Nanocomposites [Seite 849]
5.5.5 - 22.6Summary [Seite 849]
5.5.6 - Nomenclature [Seite 850]
5.5.7 - References [Seite 851]
6 - Part IV: Mixing Practices [Seite 854]
6.1 - 23Internal Mixers [Seite 856]
6.1.1 - 23.1Introduction [Seite 856]
6.1.2 - 23.2Mixing Mechanism of Internal Mixer [Seite 857]
6.1.2.1 - 23.2.1Structure of Internal Mixer [Seite 857]
6.1.2.2 - 23.2.2Mixing Steps for Mixing of Polymers and Fillers [Seite 859]
6.1.2.3 - 23.2.3Dispersion Mechanism of Fillers [Seite 859]
6.1.3 - 23.3Studies of Mixing Mechanism by Model Tests [Seite 860]
6.1.3.1 - 23.3.1Two-Dimensional and Three-Dimensional Model Tests [Seite 860]
6.1.3.2 - 23.3.2Improvement of Rotors by Model Tests [Seite 864]
6.1.4 - 23.4Development of New Rotor for Internal Mixers [Seite 866]
6.1.4.1 - 23.4.1Rotor in Tangential Type Internal Mixer [Seite 866]
6.1.4.1.1 - 23.4.1.1Four-Wing Rotor (4WN) [Seite 866]
6.1.4.1.2 - 23.4.1.2ST Rotor [Seite 867]
6.1.4.1.3 - 23.4.1.3Tangential Type 6-Wing Rotor (6WI) [Seite 868]
6.1.4.2 - 23.4.2Development of Rotors for Intermeshing Mixers [Seite 872]
6.1.4.2.1 - 23.4.2.1Intermeshing Mixers [Seite 872]
6.1.4.2.2 - 23.4.2.2VIC Mixer [Seite 873]
6.1.4.2.3 - 23.4.2.3Partial Intermeshing Mixer [Seite 874]
6.1.5 - 23.5Improvement of Internal Mixers [Seite 874]
6.1.6 - 23.6Summary [Seite 875]
6.1.7 - References [Seite 876]
6.2 - 24Mixing in Single-Screw Extruders [Seite 878]
6.2.1 - 24.1Introduction [Seite 878]
6.2.2 - 24.2Laminar Mixing in Melt Conveying [Seite 879]
6.2.2.1 - 24.2.1Effect of Reorientation [Seite 894]
6.2.2.2 - 24.2.2Backmixing [Seite 897]
6.2.2.2.1 - 24.2.2.1Cross Sectional Mixing and Axial Mixing [Seite 898]
6.2.2.2.2 - 24.2.2.2Residence Time Distribution [Seite 899]
6.2.2.2.3 - 24.2.2.3RTD in Screw Extruders [Seite 901]
6.2.2.2.4 - 24.2.2.4Methods to Improve Backmixing [Seite 902]
6.2.2.2.5 - 24.2.2.5Conclusions [Seite 904]
6.2.2.3 - 24.2.3Chaotic Mixing [Seite 904]
6.2.3 - 24.3Mixing Devices in Extrusion [Seite 908]
6.2.3.1 - 24.3.1Distributive Mixing Elements [Seite 912]
6.2.3.1.1 - 24.3.1.1The Vortex Intermeshing Pin (VIP) Mixer [Seite 921]
6.2.3.1.2 - 24.3.1.2Description of the VIP Mixer [Seite 923]
6.2.3.1.3 - 24.3.1.3Experimental Results [Seite 925]
6.2.3.2 - 24.3.2Dispersive Mixing Sections [Seite 932]
6.2.3.2.1 - 24.3.2.1Design of Dispersive Mixing Devices [Seite 933]
6.2.3.3 - 24.3.3Using the TSE Mixing Mechanism in Single Screw Extruders [Seite 957]
6.2.4 - Nomenclature [Seite 965]
6.2.5 - References [Seite 966]
6.3 - 25Mixing Practices in Co-Rotating Twin Screw Extruders [Seite 972]
6.3.1 - 25.1Introduction [Seite 972]
6.3.2 - 25.2Building Blocks for Mixing [Seite 973]
6.3.2.1 - 25.2.1Extruder Geometry [Seite 973]
6.3.2.2 - 25.2.2Element Geometry [Seite 976]
6.3.3 - 25.3Typical Process Mixing Tasks [Seite 988]
6.3.3.1 - 25.3.1Polymer/Polymer [Seite 988]
6.3.3.2 - 25.3.2Polymer/Low Aspect Ratio Filler [Seite 991]
6.3.3.3 - 25.3.3Elastomer - Elastomer/Low Aspect Ratio Filler [Seite 994]
6.3.3.4 - 25.3.4Polymer/High Aspect Ratio Filler (Fiber) [Seite 995]
6.3.3.5 - 25.3.5Polymer/Nano Scale Filler [Seite 997]
6.3.3.6 - 25.3.6Polymer/Low Viscosity Additives [Seite 999]
6.3.4 - 25.4Summary [Seite 1002]
6.3.5 - References [Seite 1003]
6.4 - 26Intermeshing Twin Screw Extruders [Seite 1006]
6.4.1 - 26.1Outline [Seite 1006]
6.4.2 - 26.2Total Compounding System [Seite 1008]
6.4.2.1 - 26.2.1Outline of the Total System [Seite 1008]
6.4.2.2 - 26.2.2Typical Machine Specifications and Output Capacities [Seite 1009]
6.4.2.3 - 26.2.3Extrusion Performance Simulation [Seite 1011]
6.4.2.3.1 - 26.2.3.1Melting Mechanism Analysis [Seite 1012]
6.4.2.3.2 - 26.2.3.2Twin Screw Extrusion Characteristics Simulation [Seite 1013]
6.4.3 - 26.3Compounding Applications [Seite 1016]
6.4.3.1 - 26.3.1Inorganic Filler Compounding [Seite 1016]
6.4.3.2 - 26.3.2Glass-Fiber Compounding [Seite 1020]
6.4.3.2.1 - 26.3.2.1Short Glass Fiber Compounding [Seite 1020]
6.4.3.2.2 - 26.3.2.2Long Glass Fiber Compounding and Molding [Seite 1020]
6.4.3.3 - 26.3.3Polymer Nano-Composite Compounding [Seite 1022]
6.4.3.4 - 26.3.4Polymer Blending [Seite 1024]
6.4.3.4.1 - 26.3.4.1Miscible Polymer Blending [Seite 1024]
6.4.3.4.2 - 26.3.4.2Immiscible Polymer Blending [Seite 1027]
6.4.4 - 26.4Reactive Extrusion [Seite 1031]
6.4.4.1 - 26.4.1Advantages of Reactive Extrusion [Seite 1031]
6.4.4.2 - 26.4.2Typical Chemical Reactions [Seite 1033]
6.4.4.3 - 26.4.3Recycling Applications [Seite 1036]
6.4.4.3.1 - 26.4.3.1PET Direct Extrusion [Seite 1036]
6.4.4.3.2 - 26.4.3.2PET Modification for Producing Foamed Sheet [Seite 1036]
6.4.4.3.3 - 26.4.3.3Combination of Reactive Processing and Injection Molding [Seite 1038]
6.4.5 - 26.5Devolatilization [Seite 1040]
6.4.5.1 - 26.5.1Effects of Water Addition [Seite 1040]
6.4.5.2 - 26.5.2High Concentration Devolatilization [Seite 1041]
6.4.6 - References [Seite 1042]
6.5 - 27Reactive Compounding [Seite 1044]
6.5.1 - 27.1Introduction [Seite 1044]
6.5.2 - 27.2Free Radical Grafting of Monomers onto Polymers [Seite 1045]
6.5.2.1 - 27.2.1Overall Reaction Scheme [Seite 1047]
6.5.2.2 - 27.2.2Free Radical Grafting in a Batch Mixer [Seite 1049]
6.5.2.2.1 - 27.2.2.1Effect of Comonomers [Seite 1049]
6.5.2.2.2 - 27.2.2.2Effect of Temperature [Seite 1051]
6.5.2.2.3 - 27.2.2.3Effect of Mixing [Seite 1052]
6.5.2.3 - 27.2.3Free Radical Grafting in a Twin Screw Extruder [Seite 1053]
6.5.2.3.1 - 27.2.3.1Effect of Screw Design [Seite 1053]
6.5.2.3.2 - 27.2.3.2Effect of Plastication/Melting [Seite 1054]
6.5.2.3.3 - 27.2.3.3Effect of Feeding Mode [Seite 1057]
6.5.2.4 - 27.2.4Recent Developments [Seite 1061]
6.5.2.4.1 - 27.2.4.1Fractional Feeding [Seite 1061]
6.5.2.4.2 - 27.2.4.2Concept of Nano-Reactors [Seite 1062]
6.5.3 - 27.3Reactive Blending [Seite 1065]
6.5.3.1 - 27.3.1General Features of Morphology Development [Seite 1065]
6.5.3.2 - 27.3.2Reactive Blending in Batch Mixers or Analogues [Seite 1072]
6.5.3.2.1 - 27.3.2.1Effect of the Copolymer Formation Kinetics [Seite 1072]
6.5.3.2.2 - 27.3.2.2Effect of Mixing Time [Seite 1076]
6.5.3.2.3 - 27.3.2.3Effect of Mixing Intensity [Seite 1077]
6.5.3.3 - 27.3.3Reactive Blending in Screw Extruders [Seite 1078]
6.5.3.3.1 - 27.3.3.1Non-Reactive versus Reactive Blends [Seite 1080]
6.5.3.3.2 - 27.3.3.2Effect of Screw Configuration [Seite 1081]
6.5.3.3.3 - 27.3.3.3Effect of the Compatibilizer Content [Seite 1082]
6.5.3.3.4 - 27.3.3.4Adverse Effect of Mixing [Seite 1083]
6.5.3.4 - 27.3.4One-Step versus Two-Step Reactive Blending [Seite 1086]
6.5.3.5 - 27.3.5Comparison of in situ Compatibilization to Separate Copolymer Addition [Seite 1090]
6.5.3.6 - 27.3.6Polymerized Blends [Seite 1092]
6.5.3.6.1 - 27.3.6.1Intractable Engineering Plastics/Monomer Systems [Seite 1092]
6.5.3.6.2 - 27.3.6.2Nano-Blends [Seite 1092]
6.5.4 - 27.4Compounding of Polymer Nanocomposites [Seite 1093]
6.5.4.1 - 27.4.1Multi-Scale Structures of Montmorillonite (MMT) [Seite 1094]
6.5.4.2 - 27.4.2Mechanisms of Dispersion of MMT in Polymers [Seite 1095]
6.5.4.3 - 27.4.3Factors Affecting the Rate and Scale of Dispersion of MMT in Polymers [Seite 1095]
6.5.4.4 - 27.4.4Water-Assisted MMT Dispersion in Polymers [Seite 1100]
6.5.5 - 27.5Summary [Seite 1103]
6.5.6 - References [Seite 1104]
6.6 - 28Continuous Mixers [Seite 1106]
6.6.1 - 28.1Introduction [Seite 1106]
6.6.2 - 28.2Structure and Principles of Operation [Seite 1107]
6.6.2.1 - 28.2.1Solids Conveying [Seite 1109]
6.6.2.2 - 28.2.2Melting [Seite 1110]
6.6.2.3 - 28.2.3Mixing [Seite 1111]
6.6.2.4 - 28.2.4Devolatilization [Seite 1113]
6.6.2.5 - 28.2.5Pumping [Seite 1114]
6.6.3 - 28.3Modeling [Seite 1116]
6.6.3.1 - 28.3.1Circumferential Flow [Seite 1118]
6.6.3.2 - 28.3.2Global Flow Models [Seite 1136]
6.6.3.3 - 28.3.3Scale-Up Considerations [Seite 1146]
6.6.4 - 28.4Rotor Design [Seite 1149]
6.6.4.1 - 28.4.1Single-Stage Rotors [Seite 1149]
6.6.4.2 - 28.4.2Two-Stage Rotors [Seite 1154]
6.6.5 - 28.5Conclusion [Seite 1157]
6.6.6 - List of Symbols [Seite 1158]
6.6.7 - Abreviations [Seite 1159]
6.6.8 - References [Seite 1160]
7 - Subject Index [Seite 1164]