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Language as Social Action

Chapter Outline

• 1.1 Language and Society
• 1.2 Language as a Resource
• Takeaways
• Discussion Points
• References

In this chapter, we introduce the intertwined relationship between language, action, and society. We see this relationship as a continuum rather than a separate system of micro and macro levels, as it is often regarded. Furthermore, we approach this relationship through two central and opposing forces: stasis and change. This approach allows us to examine both the rules, norms, and practices that regulate and govern language use, as well as the variations and changes that occur over time. Language can not only be used within established norms and rules but also be used alternatively to bend and break the rules and norms to create something new. In addition, language is also regulated and renewed by wider social, cultural and political processes. This dynamic interaction between language and society is the core focus in discourse studies.

Key Concepts in This Chapter: Discourse, Language as a resource, Power, Social constructivism

1.1 Language and Society

Discourse studies build on the fundamental idea that language is a form of social action. This means that rather than seeing language as a vehicle for communication or a window into the world, we see language as a way of doing things in the world. Seeing language as a social action draws our attention to the power of language: when, how, and why it matters if, for example, we are categorised as native speakers of a particular language, if new terms are used to refer to gender and sexuality or if a particular accent is described as desirable or dangerous. The large financial investments used to manage brands of international products and political campaigns demonstrate the power of language. The recent global COVID-19 pandemic reminded us of the need for reliable information and the challenges of producing accurate and understandable knowledge about something completely new and constantly evolving. Language, power, and society are intertwined, and in this book, we will explore this relationship by drawing on seminal work on discourse and power by Michel Foucault (1972/1989, 1980) and Norman Fairclough (1992).

The relationship between language and society is at the core of discourse studies. This is what the concept of discourse tries to capture: in discourse studies, discourse refers to a theoretical view of language as social action. In practice, this means examining language-in-action in a wide range of social situations. The range of these situations can vary from a single interaction event, like a job interview or a presidential speech, to wide social, political and historical circumstances at a given time, like the construction of knowledge and evolving discourses about the COVID-19 pandemic. Regardless of the situation, the fundamental rationale for discourse studies lies in the understanding that language and society are deeply interconnected. Every instance of language use is shaped by broader social practices and structures and vice versa, every instance of language use contributes in constructing wider social practices and structures. Therefore, it is essential to examine both the specific use of language and the wider social context in which language is used, paying particular attention to how they influence and interact with one another.

Seeing language as social action underlines its power: Language is a key element in constructing meanings, generating knowledge, and shaping identities. It can be a clue that creates a sense of belonging, yet simultaneously, it can be used to exclude and discriminate. The social situation can both limit and enable what we can do with language.

The dynamic interplay between language use and social situation (time and place) forms the core premises for discourse studies: how we use language impacts the topic under discussion as well as the relationship between the speaker and the listener. The same applies the other way around: the interactive situation and the broader societal context influence the possibilities, preferences and potential challenges in language use. Social actions and language use vary according to the situation, time, place and interactional goals.

The dynamics of language use opens up an interesting question for discourse analysts: what choices are possible (or not) for language users in a given situation and what are the consequences of the choices made? These choices are enabled and constrained by linguistic, discursive and social systems in the given situation. In addition, social situations and actions are embedded in historically formed norms and ideologies that shape language choices.

One central way to examine the relationship between language and society in discourse studies is to focus on meanings: what kinds of meanings are constructed in a given situation and what are the conditions and consequences of the meaning-making. The motivation is not so much in finding the most 'truthful' version of a given phenomenon or event as it is in understanding the relative weight of the different versions of the issue at hand. By asking which meanings are dominant, marginal or missing and why the core interest of discourse studies in the intertwined relationships between language, knowledge and power becomes evident.

The emphasis on the relationship between language, power and knowledge links back to the theoretical view of seeing language as social action. Within the field of language studies, this view originates from traditions that emphasise the functional nature of language and its social context. The foundations of these approaches can be traced to early functional linguistics, sociolinguistics and linguistic anthropology. From these perspectives, language is not only a linguistic system but also a discursive and social system. Consequently, language is organised not only according to the inherent rules of grammar but also - and emphatically so - according to discursive and social norms, values and rules. In short, language is dynamic: previous norms are stretched, old rules are forgotten and new ways of using language emerge for new situations and purposes.

The relationship between language and the surrounding society is multi-level, dynamic and deeply intertwined. The ways in which language use is regulated and organised is inherently social. This means that studying language provides us insights about society, culture, time and place in which it exists - and vice versa. Understanding this basic idea is essential for discourse studies. A discourse researcher examines language to know more about society and culture, rather than focusing solely on the language itself. This research perspective is the cornerstone of discourse research and defines its research object and theoretical perspectives: language as social action by individuals in a given time and place.

It is through language that we tell about ourselves and describe others and pass on traditions and histories. We use language to act as parents, spouses, students and employees; to negotiate holiday plans; to make a term paper; to defend our rights and to resist norms. Through language, we enjoy literature, follow world politics and entertain ourselves in front of the screen. Language is the cohesive force that binds us into communities. As language use is a social activity, language users also become social actors with particular roles, opportunities and resources to act, exercise power, resist and reform and negotiate social relations and dynamics. Consequently, discourse studies focus on how language shapes us, how we shape language and how language operates in various contexts.

In discourse studies, we are interested in studying language as it is used in everyday life across various contexts: when we talk with our friends, write a thesis or read the latest social media messages. But this is not the whole story. We are also interested in examining the wider social, historical and political contexts of language use: the enduring power relations and prevailing or marginalised ideologies and identities.

This means that we see language - the visible and audible materiality of language use, such as texts, speeches, advertisements and graffiti - as inherently connected to broader temporal and situational processes and structures. In discourse studies, the small and big are intertwined: even a small instance of language use (e.g., an identity category and the name of language or country) is linked to the social, political, economic and historical processes of the situation. This is, in short, what it means that discourse examines the dynamic relationship between language and society.

Language varies across different situations, with each context both limiting and enabling language variation. Language use is governed by specific conditions, norms and consequences. For example, the language a job applicant employs during an interview can influence their chances of securing the position, while the interview setting itself impacts the applicant's language use. Social actions are also language actions. Domains such as politics, law, education and knowledge production are all produced, interpreted and appropriated through language.

Language and society have a reciprocal relationship: they influence each other. Language tells us about time, place, norms and...