An Introduction to Behavior Analysis
Description
Explore a fascinating introductory treatment of the principles of behavior analysis written by three leading voices in the field
An Introduction to Behavior Analysis delivers an engaging and comprehensive introduction to the concepts and applications for graduate students of behavior analysis. Written from the ground up to capture and hold student interest, the book keeps its focus on practical issues.
The book offers readers sound analyses of Pavlovian and operant learning, reinforcement and punishment, motivation and stimulus control, language and rule-following, decision-making and clinical behavior analysis. With fully up to date empirical research references and theoretical content, An Introduction to Behavior Analysis thoroughly justifies every principle it describes with empirical support and explicitly points out where more data are required.
The text encourages students to analyze their own experiences and some foundational findings in the field in a way that minimizes jargon and maximizes engagement. Readers will also benefit from the inclusion of:
* A clear articulation and defense of the philosophical assumptions and overarching goals of behavior analysis.
* A thorough description of objective data collection, experimental methods, and data analysis in the context of psychology
* An exploration of the core principles of behavior analysis, presented at a level comprehensible to an introductory audience
* A broad array of principles that cover issues as varied as language, substance-use disorders, and common psychological disorders
Perfect for students taking their first course in behavior analysis or behavior modification, An Introduction to Behavior Analysis will also earn a place in the libraries of students pursuing certification through the Behavior Analysis Certification Board or taking courses in the applied psychological sciences.
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Persons
Gregory J. Madden, PhD, is a Professor of Psychology at Utah State University. His research foci are on impulsivity, drug-taking, pollution control, and health decision-making. He was Editor-in-Chief of the APA Handbook of Behavior Analysis and the Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. He is a Fellow of the Association for Behavior Analysis International.
Derek D. Reed, PhD, BCBA-D, is a Professor of Applied Behavioral Science at the University of Kansas. His research applies behavioral economic concepts to inform public policy and address issues of societal importance. He has served as Associate Editor for The Psychological Record, Behavior Analysis in Practice, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, and Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior.
Florence D. DiGennaro Reed, PhD, BCBA-D, is an Associate Professor of Applied Behavioral Science at the University of Kansas. Her research examines effective and efficient staff training and performance improvement practices in human service settings. She also conducts translational research in on-campus laboratory facilities. Dr. DiGennaro Reed has served as Associate Editor for Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, Journal of Behavioral Education, and Behavior Analysis in Practice.
Content
Preface xv
1 An Introduction to Behavior Analysis 1
What Is Behavior? 1
What Is Behavior Analysis? 3
The Goals of Behavior Analysis 3
The First Goal of Behavior Analysis 3
The Second Goal of Behavior Analysis 5
Demand More of Your Science 5
Reading Quiz 1 6
The Assumptions of Behavior Analysis 6
Assumption #1: Behavior is determined 6
Mentalistic Explanations of Behavior 7
I'm Not Buying It. I Determine My Own Behavior 8
Assumption #2: The scientific method is a valid way to reveal the determinants of behavior 10
Reading Quiz 2 11
Scientific Method 12
Reading Quiz 3 15
What Are the Determinants of Behavior? 15
Nature 15
Nurture 16
Behavioral Epigenetics 16
The Activities of Behavior Analysts 17
The Experimental Analysis of Behavior 17
Applied Behavior Analysis 18
Behavioral Service Delivery 18
Extra Box 1: Dimensions of Applied Behavior Analysis 19
Organizational Behavior Management 20
Summary 20
Reading Quiz 4 20
Answers to Reading Quiz Questions 20
Notes 21
References 22
2 Understanding Behavioral Research 23
Variables 24
Correlation vs Causation 24
Experiments 25
Three Components of a Behavioral Experiment 26
Reading Quiz 1 27
Measuring Behavior 27
Behavioral Definitions 28
Observable and Objective 29
Refining the Behavioral Definition 29
Social Validity of the Behavioral Definition 29
Finalizing the Behavioral Definition 30
Interobserver Agreement (IOA) 30
What IOA Is Not 31
Reading Quiz 2 31
Dimensions of Behavior 32
Frequency 32
Latency 32
Duration 32
Magnitude 33
Four Direct-Observation Methods 33
Outcome Recording 33
When to Use Outcome Recording 34
Calculating IOA When Using Outcome Recording 35
Event Recording 36
When to Use Event Recording 37
Calculating IOA When Using Event Recording 37
Interval Recording 39
When to Use Interval Recording 39
Calculating IOA When Using Partial- or Whole-Interval Recording 40
Duration Recording 41
When to Use Duration Recording 41
Calculating IOA When Using Duration Recording 41
Reading Quiz 3 42
Summary 43
Answers to Reading Quiz Questions 44
Note 45
References 45
3 Experimental Designs in Behavior Analysis 47
Group Experimental Designs 49
Single-Subject Experimental Designs 51
Internal Validity of Single-Subject Experimental Designs 51
Four Types of Single-Subject Experimental Designs 52
Comparison (A-B) Design 52
Reversal (A-B-A) Design 54
Alternating-Treatments Design 55
Multiple-Baseline Designs 57
Defining Features of Single-Subject Designs 61
Three Kinds of Replication 62
Reading Quiz 1 63
Did Behavior Change? 64
Two Patterns of Behavior Change 65
What Makes a Change Convincing? 65
Guidelines for Conducting the Visual Analysis 67
What Is Responsible for the Change 71
Reading Quiz 2 72
Supplementing the Visual Analysis with Inferential Statistics 75
Summary 76
Answers to Reading Quiz Questions 77
Notes 80
References 80
4 Phylogenetic Behavior and Pavlovian Learning 82
Phylogenetically Selected Behavior 83
Reflex Learning - Habituation 84
The "Nature and Nurture" Answer to the "Nature vs Nurture" Debate 85
Elicited or Evoked? 85
Reading Quiz 1 86
Pavlovian Learning 86
A Simple Pavlovian Conditioning Procedure 87
Pavlovian Conditioning of Emotions 88
Pavlovian Fear Conditioning 89
The Little Albert Experiment 90
What Became of Little Albert? 91
Fear Conditioning and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder 92
Reading Quiz 2 92
What Is Learned During Pavlovian Conditioning? 93
Three Things Learned During Pavlovian Conditioning 94
Principles of Effective Pavlovian Conditioning 95
Applying these principles to PTSD 100
Reading Quiz 3 100
Generalization 101
Pavlovian Extinction-Based Therapy 103
Graduated Exposure Therapy 104
Spontaneous Recovery 105
Extra Box 1: Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Military Veterans 107
Reading Quiz 4 108
Pavlovian Conditioning in Everyday Life 108
Taste-Aversion Learning 109
Advertising 110
Summary 111
Answers to Reading Quiz Questions 111
Notes 112
References 113
5 Operant Learning I: Reinforcement 117
Operant Behavior 117
Reading Quiz 1 118
Response-Consequence Contingencies 119
Learning Response-Consequence Contingencies 120
Noncontingent Consequences 122
Superstitious Behavior 123
Reading Quiz 2 123
Changing Behavior with Contingent Consequences 124
Extra Box 1: Noncontingent Consequences in North Korea 125
Reinforcers, Reinforcement, and Rewards 126
Reading Quiz 3 127
The Discovery of Reinforcement 127
How to Tell If a Consequence Functions as a Reinforcer 128
From Puzzle Boxes to Skinner Boxes 130
Reading Quiz 4 131
Response Variability: Exploring and Exploiting 131
Extra Box 2: Add Some Variability to Your Life 132
The Generic Nature of Operant Behavior 133
Not Every Consequence Functions as a Reinforcer 134
Reading Quiz 5 134
Reinforcement in Social Media and Video Games 137
Games for Good 137
Summary 138
Answers to Reading Quiz Questions and Questions Posed in Table 5.2 139
Notes 141
References 141
6 Operant Learning II: Positive and Negative Reinforcement 143
Positive Reinforcement 143
Positive Reinforcement in the Lab 144
Negative Reinforcement 146
Negative Reinforcement - Escape (SRE-) 146
Negative Reinforcement - Escape (SRE-) in the Lab 148
Negative Reinforcement - Avoidance (SRA-) 148
Negative Reinforcement - Avoidance (SRA-) in the Lab 150
Extra Box 1: What Is the Consequence in SRA-? 150
Reading Quiz 1 152
Positive or Negative Reinforcement: Is There Really a Difference? 153
Reason 1: Heuristics 153
Reason 2: Loss Aversion 154
Reason 3: Preference for Positive Reinforcement 155
Using Reinforcement to Positively Influence Behavior 155
Reinforcement in the Workplace 156
Three Objections to Reinforcement 157
Objection 1: Intrinsic Motivation 157
Objection 2: Performance-Inhibiting Properties of Reinforcement 158
Creativity 159
Choking Under Pressure 159
Objection 3: Cheating 160
Reading Quiz 2 161
Theories of Reinforcement 161
The Response Strengthening Theory of Reinforcement 162
The Information Theory of Reinforcement 163
Evaluating the Theories 164
Reading Quiz 3 164
Summary 164
Answers to Reading Quiz Questions 165
References 165
7 Extinction and Differential Reinforcement 169
Operant Extinction Following Positive Reinforcement 170
Operant Extinction Following Negative Reinforcement (Escape Extinction) 171
How Quickly Will Operant Extinction Work? 174
Rate of Reinforcement Prior to Extinction 174
Motivation 175
Spontaneous Recovery of Operant Behavior 175
Reading Quiz 1 176
Extra Box 1: How Extinction Informs Theories of Reinforcement 177
Other Effects of Extinction 179
Extinction-Induced Emotional Behavior 179
Extinction Burst 179
Extinction-Induced Variability 180
Extinction-Induced Resurgence 181
We Tried It at Home 183
Reading Quiz 2 183
Using Extinction to Positively Influence Behavior 184
Functional Analysis of Behavior 184
Functional Analysis of Self-Injurious Behavior 186
Differential Reinforcement 187
Differential Reinforcement of Problem Behavior 188
How to Effectively Use Differential Reinforcement 189
Differentially Reinforcing Response Topography 190
Differentially Reinforcing Rate of Operant Behavior 192
Reading Quiz 3 192
Summary 193
Answers to Reading Quiz Questions 194
Note 194
References 195
8 Primary and Conditioned Reinforcement and Shaping 200
Primary Reinforcers 201
Conditioned Reinforcers 202
Pavlovian Learning and Conditioned Reinforcers 202
Verbal Learning and Conditioned Reinforcers 203
The Token Economy 204
Reading Quiz 1 206
Arranging Effective Conditioned Reinforcers 207
Extra Box 1: Conditioned Reinforcers in Zoos 210
Clicker Training with Humans 211
Reading Quiz 2 212
Shaping 213
Extra Box 2: Shaping Animal Behavior on the Farm 214
Shaping Human Behavior 215
Shaping and Flow 215
Principles of Effective Shaping 217
Try It at Home: The Shaping Game 220
Reading Quiz 3 221
Automating Shaping: Percentile Schedules of Reinforcement 221
Summary 224
Answers to Reading Quiz Questions 225
Notes 226
References 226
9 Motivation, Reinforcer Efficacy, and Habit Formation 229
Everyday Concepts of Motivation 230
From Motivation to Motivating Operations 232
Two Kinds of Motivating Operations 232
Examples of EOs 233
Examples of AOs 234
Motivating Operations Require Response-Reinforcer Contingency Learning 234
The Therapeutic Utility of Motivating Operations 235
Extra Box 1: The Cost of Mentalistic Reasoning 236
Reading Quiz 1 237
Identifying Effective Reinforcers: The "Liking" Strategy 237
Reinforcer Surveys 238
Stimulus Preference Assessments 239
Extra Box 2: Avoiding Circularity - The Premack Principle 241
Reading Quiz 2 243
Measuring Reinforcer Efficacy 243
Dimensions of Effective Reinforcers 245
Contingency 245
Reinforcer Size 245
Reinforcer Quality 246
Reinforcer Immediacy 246
Summary 248
Habit Formation 248
Habits - What Are They and How Are They Formed 248
Our Everyday Habits 250
Replacing Bad Habits with Good Ones 250
Reading Quiz 3 252
Summary 252
Answers to Reading Quiz Questions 253
Notes 254
References 254
10 Punishment 258
Punishers and Punishment 259
Two Kinds of Punishment - Both Decrease Behavior 261
Positive Punishment 262
Negative Punishment 263
Reading Quiz 1 264
When Should We Punish? 264
Extra Box 1: Punishment Is the Norm - Using It Effectively Is Humane 265
Six Characteristics of Effective Punishment Interventions 266
1. Focus on Reinforcement First 267
2. Combine Punishment with Extinction and/or Differential Reinforcement 267
3. Deliver Punishers Immediately 268
4. Deliver Punishment Contingently 269
5. Punish Every Time 269
6. Use a Punisher in the Goldilocks Zone 270
Reading Quiz 2 271
Primary and Conditioned Punishment 272
Arranging Effective Conditioned Punishers 273
Some Commonly Used Punishers 274
Time-Out from Positive Reinforcement 274
Response-Cost Punishment 276
The Watchful Eye of the Punisher 277
The Role of Reinforcement in the Act of Punishing 279
Reading Quiz 3 280
Summary 281
Answers to Reading Quiz Questions 282
Note 283
References 283
11 Complex Contingencies of Reinforcement 289
Schedules of Reinforcement 290
Ratio Schedules of Reinforcement 291
Fixed-Ratio Schedules 292
Variable-Ratio Schedules 295
The Behavioral Economics of Ratio Schedules 297
The Underappreciated VR Schedule 298
Reading Quiz 1 301
Interval Schedules of Reinforcement 302
Fixed-Interval Schedules 302
Variable-Interval Schedules 304
Putting it All Together 306
Reading Quiz 2 307
Why Study Schedules of Reinforcement? 308
Extra Box 1: Contingency Management 309
Schedule Thinning 310
Scheduling Reinforcers to Enhance Human Performance and Happiness 312
Reading Quiz 3 313
Summary 313
Answers to Reading Quiz Questions and Questions Posed in Tables 11.1-11.4 314
Notes 315
References 316
12 Antecedent Stimulus Control 321
Phylogenetic and Pavlovian Stimulus Control 322
Discriminated Operant Behavior 322
The Discriminative Stimulus (SD) 324
The S¿ 325
The SDp 325
The Three-term Contingency 327
Reading Quiz 1 327
Discriminative Stimuli and Establishing Operations 329
Discrimination Training 330
Effective Methods of Discrimination Training 330
Using Discrimination Training to Positively Influence Behavior 331
Extra Box 1: Direct Instruction of Reading Skills 333
Generalization 334
Using Discrimination Training to Improve Stimulus Control 336
Promoting Generalization and Maintenance 337
Tactic 1: Teach Behaviors That Will Contact Natural Contingencies of Reinforcement 338
Tactic 2: Train Diversely 338
Tactic 3: Arrange Antecedent Stimuli That Will Cue Generalization 338
Reading Quiz 2 339
Stimulus-Response Chains 340
Teaching Stimulus-Response Chains 341
Prompting and Fading 342
Extra Box 2: Consciousness 343
Reading Quiz 3 345
Summary 345
Answers to Reading Quiz Questions 346
References 347
13 Choice 351
What Is Choice? 352
Four Variables Affecting Choice 352
Reinforcement vs. No Consequence 353
Reinforcer Size/Quality 353
Effort 354
Reinforcer Delay 355
Summary 355
Reading Quiz 1 356
The Rich Uncle Joe Experiment 356
Choosing between Uncertain Outcomes 357
Herrnstein's Matching Equation 358
More Uncertainty 358
Research Support for Herrnstein's Equation 361
Reading Quiz 2 362
Extra Box 1: The Matching Law, Terrorism, and White Nationalism 364
Substitutes 366
Extra Box 2: What Substitutes for Drug Reinforcers? 367
Using the Matching Law to Positively Influence Behavior 368
The Matching Law and Attention 370
Summary 371
Reading Quiz 3 372
Impulsivity and Self-Control 372
Predicting Impulsive Choice 373
Predicting Preference Reversals 376
Influencing Impulsive Choice 377
Commitment Strategies 378
Delay-Exposure Training 380
Reading Quiz 4 380
Summary 380
Answers to Reading Quiz Questions and Questions Posed in Table 13.3 381
Notes 385
References 385
14 Verbal Behavior, Rule-Following, and Clinical Behavior Analysis 390
Behavioral Approaches to Language 391
Skinner's Functional Taxonomy of Speaker Behavior 391
Echoic 392
Mand 392
Tact 392
Intraverbal 393
Training Verbal Operants 393
Reading Quiz 1 394
The Behavior of the Listener 395
Expanding the Verbal Repertoire 398
Verbal Behavior and Emotions 399
Reading Quiz 2 400
Rules and Rule-Governed Behavior 401
Why Follow the Rules? 402
Pliance 402
Tracking 403
Persistently Following Incorrect Rules 404
Are We Hopelessly Compliant? 405
The Dark Side of Tracking 406
Reading Quiz 3 407
Breaking the Rules in Clinical Psychology 408
Extra Box 1: If Thoughts Are Important, Prepare to Suffer 410
The "Acceptance" in Acceptance and Commitment Therapy 411
The "Commitment" in Acceptance and Commitment Therapy 412
Does ACT Work? 413
Further Reading 413
Reading Quiz 4 413
Summary 414
Answers to Reading Quiz Questions 415
Notes 417
References 417
Appendix 421
Glossary 423
Author Index 432
Subject Index 437
PREFACE
Why Study Behavior Analysis
The course in which you are currently enrolled will give you substantive training in the behavior-analytic principles that underlie effective behavior-change interventions. For example, the principles covered in this course have proven effective in the treatment of autism spectrum disorders (Bellini & Akullian, 2007; Eldevik et al., 2009), intellectual disabilities (Heyvaert et al., 2012), antisocial behavior (McCart et al., 2006), adult anxiety and depression (Öst, 2008; Powers et al., 2009), and substance-use disorders (Dutra et al., 2008) to name just a few. In this class, you will learn the principles that are foundational to these successes.
Taking a more expansive view, the course will prepare you to pursue further training at one of the more than 250 universities that offer graduate degrees in behavior analysis. Should you choose to pursue this training, you would join more than 51,000 Board Certified Behavior Analysts (BCBA) who are recognized by most US states as the appropriate providers of behavior-analytic services to children and adults with disabilities. These underserved populations depend on students like you to pursue careers in the helping profession of behavior analysis.
For those not drawn to serving those with disabilities, you should know that the principles covered in this book have proven beneficial in the practice of clinical, counseling, and school psychology. For example, in 2012 the Inter-Organizational Task Force on Cognitive and Behavioral Psychology Doctoral Education outlined the most important principles that these practice-oriented psychologists must understand to be effective (Klepac et al., 2012). At least 60% of the competencies listed were behavior analytic, and many of these will be covered in this book (e.g., shaping, extinction/exposure).
Perhaps your interests lie elsewhere still. If so, you may be interested to know that the principles covered in this book have been successfully used in business settings. Indeed, some of the most effective managers are those who know how to (1) identify the behaviors of successful employees, (2) measure the occurrence and non-occurrence of those behaviors in all employees, and (3) develop behavior-management plans that encourage those successful behaviors. Managers who can do this are actually managing behavior, rather than acting like authoritarian dictators. Because behavior analysts rely on positive reinforcement in their management practices, employees tend to be happier while being more productive.
Still not interested? Well, consider that most readers of this book will one day be parents, if they are not already. Because the behavior-analytic principles covered in this book have proven so reliable in positively influencing behavior, they constitute the core of most parent-training programs; for example, the Criando con Amor, Promoviendo Armonía y Superacíon [Raising with Love, Promoting Harmony & Improvement] program (Baumann et al., 2014). So, if you hope to be a loving parent who helps their children to successfully navigate their world, you would do well to learn all you can from this book. Your children will never thank you for it, but you will thank yourself one day, particularly when you see other parents struggling to understand the behavior of their children.
If you are still not interested in the contents of this book, we have only one more plea - consider the words of Socrates who said, "The unexamined life is not worth living." Socrates was encouraging those of his age to use logic, wisdom, and philosophy in pursuit of self-knowledge, better relationships, and a harmonious existence with the natural world. These goals are timeless and universal. This book can open doors of self-discovery. So, use what you are about to learn to examine your life, your actions, your goals, your values. The examined life is even more worth living.
How to Use the Features of This Book
This book is designed to help students identify the important information they should know after taking this class. When important terms are first presented, they appear in bold. When you identify one of these terms you should take the following steps:
- Write the term on one side of a 3 × 5 inch flashcard. For example, in Chapter 1, the first term defined is "behavior."
- The definition of the term will always be provided nearby in italics. Once you have found the definition, write it on the back of the flashcard. For example, Chapter 1defines behavior as an individual living organism's activity, public or private, which may be influenced by external or internal stimulation.
- Sometimes the book will pose a question (e.g., what is behavior analysis?). When you identify one of these, write it on a flashcard and then, as you read on, write the answer to this question on the other side of the card.
- Keep your flashcards with you throughout the day.
Effective Studying
Most college students think reading and rereading the textbook and their lecture notes is a good way to study (Karpicke et al., 2009). It isn't. This method of studying does little to help you remember the materials when you are taking a test or, more importantly, you are trying to apply the concepts in your everyday life. For example, in a study conducted by Roediger and Karpicke (2006), one group of students was asked to study by reading the materials four times (that's probably more than you normally study). Although the students thought this would be effective, when they were tested a week later they could recall only about 40% of the materials - that's a failing grade.
A better way to study is called "repeated retrieval," but most college students don't use it (Karpicke et al., 2009). Repeated retrieval involves reading the information that you are studying and then, without peeking, saying everything you can remember (you can say it out loud or to yourself, both work equally well; Smith et al., 2013). Want to try it right now? If so, without looking, say, write, or think the definition of behavior that was given in the previous section.
If you could not recall all of the important components of the definition, that's not a problem. Compare what you could recall with the definition provided above and then (without peeking) try again. When Karpicke and Roediger (2010) asked students to repeat this read-and-retrieve process three times, the students remembered about 80% of the materials one week later. That's twice as much as the students who read the book four times.
Repeated Retrieval Made Easy
The following steps outline a practical way to use repeated retrieval to improve the efficiency and efficacy of your studying (Karpicke et al., 2014):
- Make the flashcards discussed previously.
- At least twice a day, go through your flashcards:
- Look at the term and say out loud (or to yourself) as much of what's on the back of the card as you can.
- Turn the card over and see which parts you missed. If you were not 100% correct, try it one more time before moving on to the next card.
- If you do this a couple times a day, most every day, you will study less and learn more than ever before.
An Added Benefit
Students who use repeated retrieval, by studying their flashcards 3-4 times a day, don't cram the night before an exam. They sleep anxiety-free. They also have a stack of flashcards to help them study for any comprehensive exams taken later in the semester. So, what are you waiting for? Get some flash cards and start earning better grades. Flash cards too old-school for you? There are several flash card apps you can use on your phone.
The Behavior Analysis Task List
Some readers of this book will be interested in earning the credential of BCBA. This credential is granted by the Behavior Analysis Certification Board (BACB) and it is the gold-standard credential of practicing and applied behavior analysts. The BACB's Fifth Edition Task List outlines the Foundational principles and concepts that students must master before beginning an internship as a behavior analyst and before earning the BCBA credential. The Appendix of this textbook provides the BACB's list of Foundations and indicates the chapter in which each topic is discussed.
Animal Research
As your read this textbook, you will find that many of the foundational principles of behavior analysis were discovered in research conducted with nonhuman animals. It is hard to overstate the importance of this research. What we know today about attention, perception, learning, and decision-making were first discovered by studying the behavior of nonhumans. Current research with nonhuman animals continues to expand our understanding of behavior in important ways. For example, these research findings have proven important in understanding similarities and differences in the behavior of different species. Understanding the unique behavioral abilities of each species is important in guiding conservation efforts around the world (Higham, 2016; O'Brien & Robeck, 2010; Swaisgood et al., 2003; Zimbler-DeLorenzo & Stone, 2011).
Importantly, the findings of research conducted with nonhuman animals have improved the efficacy of the work done by psychologists and behavior analysts tasked with improving the lives of individuals with disabilities, addictions, phobias, anxiety, depression, and so on (Carroll & Overmier, 2001; Madden et al., 2016). For...
