
Advances in Energy Systems
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Advances in Energy Systems offers a stellar collection of articles selected from the acclaimed journal Wiley Interdisciplinary Review: Energy and Environment. The journalcovers all aspects of energy policy, science and technology, environmental and climate change. The book covers a wide range of relevant issues related to the systemic changes for large-scale integration of renewable energy as part of the on-going energy transition.
The book addresses smart energy systems technologies, flexibility measures, recent changes in the marketplace and current policies. With contributions from a list of internationally renowned experts, the book deals with the hot topic of systems integration for future energy systems and energy transition. This important resource:
* Contains contributions from noted experts in the field
* Covers a broad range of topics on the topic of renewable energy
* Explores the technical impacts of high shares of wind and solar power
* Offers a review of international smart-grid policies
* Includes information on wireless power transmission
* Presents an authoritative view of micro-grids
* Contains a wealth of other relevant topics
Written forenergy planners, energy market professionals and technology developers, Advances in Energy Systems is an essential guide with contributions from an international panel of experts that addresses the most recent smart energy technologies.
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Persons
Peter D. Lund, Professor in Advanced Energy Systems at Aalto University, Finland.
John Byrne, Professor of Energy and Climate Policy, University of Delaware; served as a contributing author to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), which was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007.
Reinhard Haas, Professor of Energy Economics (at the Institute of Energy Systems and Electric Drives) at Vienna University of Technology, Austria.
Damian Flynn, Associate Professor in Power System Operation and Control at University College Dublin, Republic of Ireland.
Content
List of Contributors ix
Preface xi
Part I: Energy System Challenges 1
1 Handling Renewable Energy Variability and Uncertainty in Power System Operation 3
Ricardo Bessa, Carlos Moreira, Bernardo Silva and Manuel Matos
2 Short-Term Frequency Response of Power Systems with High Nonsynchronous Penetration Levels 27
Lisa Ruttledge and Damian Flynn
3 Technical Impacts of High Penetration Levels of Wind Power on Power System Stability 47
Damian Flynn, Zakir Rather, Atle Rygg Årdal, Salvatore D'Arco, Anca D. Hansen, Nicolaos A. Cutululis, Poul Sorensen, Ana Estanqueiro, Emilio Gómez-Lázaro, Nickie Menemenlis, Charles Smith and Ye Wang
4 Understanding Constraints to the Transformation Rate of Global Energy Infrastructure 67
Joe L. Lane, Simon Smart, Diego Schmeda-Lopez, Ove Hoegh-Guldberg, Andrew Garnett, Chris Greig and Eric McFarland
5 Physical and Cybersecurity in a Smart Grid Environment 85
Jing Xie, Alexandru Stefanov and Chen]Ching Liu
6 Energy Security: Challenges and Needs 111
Benjamin K. Sovacool
7 Nuclear and Renewables: Compatible or Contradicting? 119
Lutz Mez
Part II: Perspectives on Grids 127
8 Smart-Grid Policies: An International Review 129
Marilyn A. Brown and Shan Zhou
9 A View of Microgrids 149
Joao A. P. Lopes, Andre G. Madureira and Carlos Moreira
10 New Electricity Distribution Network Planning Approaches for Integrating Renewables 167
Fabrizio Pilo, Gianni Celli, Emilio Ghiani and Gian G. Soma
11 Transmission Planning for Wind Energy in the United States and Europe: Status and Prospects 187
Charles Smith, Dale Osborn, Robert Zavadil, Warren Lasher, Emilio Gómez-Lázaro, Ana Estanqueiro, Thomas Trotscher, John Tande, Magnus Korpas, Frans Van Hulle, Hannele Holttinen, Antje Orths, Daniel Burke, Mark O'Malley, Jan Dobschinski, Barry Rawn, Madeline Gibescu and Lewis Dale
12 Opportunities and Barriers of High-Voltage Direct Current Grids: A State-of-the-Art Analysis 201
Debora Coil]Mayor and Jürgen Schmid
13 Wireless Power Transmission: Inductive Coupling, Radio Wave, and Resonance Coupling 211
Naoki Shinohara
Part III: Flexibility Measures 221
14 The Role of Large]Scale Energy Storage Under High Shares of Renewable Energy 223
Shin]ichi Inage
15 The Role of Electric Vehicles in Smart Grids 245
Matthias D. Galus, Marina González Vayá, Thilo Krause and Göran Andersson
16 Use of Electric Vehicles or Hydrogen in the Danish Transport Sector in 2050? 265
Klaus Skytte, Amalia Pizarro and Kenneth B. Karlsson
17 Comparison of Synthetic Natural Gas Production Pathways for the Storage of Renewable Energy 279
Sebastian Fendt, Alexander Buttler, Matthias Gaderer and Hartmut Spliethoff
18 Storage and Demand]Side Options for Integrating Wind Power 303
Aidan Tuohy, Ben Kaun and Robert Entriken
19 On the Long-Term Prospects of Power-to-Gas Technologies 321
Amela Ajanovic and Reinhard Haas
20 Wind Integration: Experience, Issues, and Challenges 341
Hannele Holttinen
21 Quantifying the Variability of Wind Energy 355
Simon Watson
22 Capacity Value Assessments of Wind Power 369
Michael Milligan, Bethany Frew, Eduardo Ibanez, Juha Kiviluoma, Hannele Holttinen and Lennart Söder
23 Hydropower Flexibility for Power Systems with Variable Renewable Energy Sources: An IEA Task 25 Collaboration 385
Daniel Huertas]Hernando, Hossein Farahmand, Hannele Holttinen, Juha Kiviluoma, Erkka Rinne, Lennart Söder, Michael Milligan, Eduardo Ibanez, Sergio M. Martinez, Emilio Gómez-Lázaro, Ana Estanqueiro, Luis Rodrigues, Luis Carr, Serafin van Roon, Antje Orths, Peter B. Eriksen, Alain Forcione and Nickie Menemenlis
24 Contribution of Bulk Energy Storage to Integrating Variable Renewable Energies in Future European Electricity Systems 407
Karl A. Zach and Hans Auer
25 Characterization of Demand Response in the Commercial, Industrial, and Residential Sectors in the United States 425
Sila Kiliccote, Daniel Olsen, Michael D. Sohn and Mary A. Piette
26 Simplified Analysis of Balancing Challenges in Sustainable and Smart Energy Systems with 100% Renewable Power Supply 445
Lennart Söder
Part IV: Changing Electricity Markets 459
27 Who Gains from Hourly Time-of-Use Retail Prices on Electricity? An Analysis of Consumption Profiles for Categories of Danish Electricity Customers 461
F. M. Andersen, H. V. Larsen, Lena Kitzing and P. E. Morthorst
28 Designing Electricity Markets for a High Penetration of Variable Renewables 479
Jenny Riesz and Michael Milligan
29 Multivariate Analysis of Solar City Economics: Impact of Energy Prices, Policy, Finance, and Cost on Urban Photovoltaic Power Plant Implementation 491
John Byrne, Job Taminiau, Kyung N. Kim, Joohee Lee and Jeongseok Seo
30 The Influence of Interconnection Capacity on the Market Value of Wind Power 507
Carlo Obersteiner
31 Research with Disaggregated Electricity End-Use Data in Households: Review and Recommendations 517
Ian H. Rowlands, Tobi Reid and Paul Parker
32 Household Electricity Consumers' Incentive to Choose Dynamic Pricing Under Different Taxation Schemes 531
Jonas Katz, Lena Kitzing, Sascha T. Schröder, F. M. Andersen, P. E. Morthorst and Morten Stryg
Index 545
1
Handling Renewable Energy Variability and Uncertainty in Power System Operation
Ricardo Bessa, Carlos Moreira, Bernardo Silva and Manuel Matos
INESC TEC, INESC Technology and Science (Formerly INESC Porto) and FEUP, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
Concerns about global warming (greenhouse-gas emissions), scarcity of fossil fuel reserves, and primary energy independence of regions or countries have led to a dramatic increase of renewable energy sources (RES) penetration in electric power systems, mainly wind and solar power. This has created new challenges associated with the variability and uncertainty of these sources. Handling these two characteristics is a key issue that includes technological, regulatory, and computational aspects. Advanced tools for handling RES maximize the resultant benefits and keep the reliability indices at the required level. Recent advances in forecasting and management algorithms provide a means to manage RES. Forecasts of renewable generation for the next hours/days play a crucial role in the management tools and protocols of the system operator. These forecasts are used as input for setting reserve requirements and performing the unit commitment (UC) and economic dispatch (ED) processes. Probabilistic forecasts are being included in management tools, enabling a move from deterministic to stochastic methods, which lead to robust solutions. On the technological side, advances to increase mid-merit and base-load generation flexibility should be a priority. The use of storage devices to mitigate uncertainty and variability is particularly valuable for isolated power systems, whereas in interconnected systems, economic criteria might be a barrier to invest in new storage facilities. The possibility of sending active and reactive control set points to RES power plants offers more flexibility. Furthermore, the emergence of the smart grid concept and the increasing share of controllable loads contribute with flexibility to increase RES penetration levels.
INTRODUCTION
The integration of renewable energy sources () in a generation portfolio conveys several benefits, such as a reduction in greenhouse gases emissions and in the country's dependency on imported energy, and it decreases spot prices. However, generation from RES (i.e. wind, solar, hydro, wave, geothermal, and biomass) can be variable and uncertain, in contrast to conventional generation (e.g. coal thermal plants, combined and open cycle gas turbines). Nevertheless, many power systems have had hydropower for a long time in their portfolio, and system operators (s) already have appropriate procedures for its utilization regarding the need to manage its variability and uncertainty. Note that hydropower is more flexible than other RES (such as wind and solar), in particular power plants with a reservoir. The installation of pumped storage units also facilitates water management. Conversely, geothermal generation is invariable, which might create problems because it is incapable of following load variations. The variability of hydropower, biomass, and geothermal is more apparent on yearly and seasonal timescales (run-of-river hydropower can also present daily variability), whereas the variability of wind and solar covers all timescales (including daily, hourly, and minutes variability).
At present, the penetration of wind and solar generation in many power systems has attained a high level, and this has created new challenges when operating the power system. In order to meet these challenges, the state-of-the-art encompasses new technological and computational advances for dealing with the variability and uncertainty of RES, particularly regarding wind and solar generation, since hydro variability has for a long-time been tackled in power systems.
New forecasting and decision-aid algorithms, including stochastic information, can improve the ability of a power system to cope with variable and uncertain generation coming from RES, without excessive extra operational cost while maintaining reliability standards. On the technological side, new technological advances to enhance the flexibility of conventional power plants (namely, base-load and mid-merit units) are essential. Primary frequency control provided by new RES power plants or the use of storage devices are also relevant research areas.
This article describes developments in several interdisciplinary topics related with managing high penetrations of solar and wind, and points toward research trends for the next years. First, the challenges introduced by RES (in the remainder of the chapter only wind and solar are considered) in power system operation are discussed. Then, an overview of the advances in renewable energy forecasting is presented. Renewable energy forecasts are an important input to methods for setting reserve requirements, defining the commitment schedule and performing congestion detection, which are reviewed. Consideration is also given to the electricity market role and the value of storage devices for interconnected and isolated systems. On the technological side, the importance of flexibility (from conventional generators and storage units) in power system operation is described, and some challenges and technological solutions unrelated to resource variability are reviewed, and the capability of active and reactive power control is analyzed.
THE CHALLENGES OF RES IN POWER SYSTEM OPERATION
Main Challenges
The intrinsic variability and uncertainty of RES create several challenges in power system operation and planning[1]. At every instant, generation must follow load variations in order to maintain the generation-load balance. The variable nature of RES (e.g. rapid generation ramps) represents a challenge, in particular, for systems without hydropower, as it introduces variations in the generation side that can only be smoothed within the physical constraints of the conventional power plants (e.g. ramping up and down, minimum generation limits). In general, the available ramping rates of flexible generation units and fast-starting units (e.g. hydropower) are used for accommodating this variability. Technological solutions such as control schemes for wind power active and reactive power set points smoothen the impact of variability. For example, a dispatch center for RES with the ability to control the active and reactive power output was created in Spain[2].
RES uncertainty also creates imbalances between generation and load as it is not possible to know (with certainty) the RES generation levels for the next hours/days. These imbalances originating from forecast errors are handled with additional generation capacity (which is an ancillary service). Computational algorithms such as forecasting algorithms and large-scale stochastic optimization (instead of deterministic tools/rules) have been developed for including information about uncertainty in the decision-making processes. The importance of new and advanced forecasting algorithms for RES, not only for the SO but also for wind power producers (in particular when trading wind power in the market), is shown by the proliferation of companies that sell this service[3]. Storage units can also play an important role in handling RES variability and uncertainty on different timescales.
If these new solutions are not adopted, variability and uncertainty of RES could lead to situations with high operational cost. For instance, curtailment of renewable generation during low load periods and the startup of expensive fast-starting units lead to a cost increase. Moreover, even with a perfect forecast for the next hours/days, it is necessary to schedule flexible generation units for accommodating the generation ramps.
Ela and O'Malley[4] presented a simulation framework for assessing the impact of wind power variability and uncertainty on several timescales. The results showed that the imbalance impacts increase with longer dispatch resolutions (ranging from five minutes to one hour) and with installed wind power. Assessment of the uncertainty impacts lead to the following conclusions: the uncertainty impact increases with the forecast error, but it is not significant until the forecast error reaches a threshold; large forecast errors have a significant impact on the generation costs and branch congestion of day-ahead scheduling, but not in the real-time dispatch.
The next subsection discusses challenges and solutions for aspects unrelated to variability and uncertainty of the resource (e.g. wind and solar). Nevertheless, situations with wind turbine tripping following voltage dips are a source of uncertainty and variability to the system, but they are essentially technological and not related with the natural resource.
Other Challenges and Technological Solutions
Specific technological characteristics of RES conversion systems, which do not depend on resource variability, bring also new operational challenges as integration levels increase. There are many important ancillary services traditionally provided by conventional thermal or hydro-based generation units, such as voltage and frequency control. Additionally, conventional generation units intrinsically provide inertia to the system, which is a fundamental characteristic in order to ensure its stability. The large-scale integration of RES naturally displaces conventional generation units, thus strongly affecting ancillary services...
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