Microwave Radar and Radiometric Remote Sensing

Name: Microwave Radar and Radiometric Remote Sensing
Brand: Artech House
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David Long(Author)

Artech House (Publisher)

1st Edition

Published on 3. January 2015

1116 pages

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Content

Microwave Radar and Radiometric Remote Sensing
Preface
Photo Credits
Computer Codes
Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction
1-1 Why Microwaves for Remote Sensing?
1-2 A Brief Overview of Microwave Sensors
1-3 A Short History of Microwave Remote Sensing
1-3.1 Radar
1-3.2 Radiometers
1-4 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
1-5 Basic Operation and Applications of Radar
1-5.1 Operation of Remote-Sensing Radars
1-6 Basic Operation and Applications of Radiometers
1-6.1 Radiometer Operation
1-6.2 Applications of Microwave Radiometry
1-7 Image Examples
Chapter 2 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation and Reflection
2-1 EM Plane Waves
2-1.1 Constitutive Parameter
2-1.2 Maxwell's Equations
2-1.3 Complex Permittivity
2-1.4 Wave Equations
2-2 Plane-Wave Propagation in Lossless Media
2-3 Wave Polarization in a Lossless Medium
2-3.1 Linear Polarization
2-3.2 Circular Polarization
2-3.3 Elliptical Polarization
2-4 Plane-Wave Propagation in Lossy Media
2-4.1 Low-Loss Dielectric
2-4.2 Good Conductor
2-5 Electromagnetic Power Density
2-5.1 PlaneWave in a Lossless Medium
2-5.2 PlaneWave in a Lossy Medium
2-5.3 Decibel Scale for Power Ratios
2-6 Wave Reflection and Transmission at Normal Incidence
2-6.1 Boundary between Lossless Media
2-6.2 Boundary between Lossy Media
2-7 Wave Reflection and Transmission at Oblique Incidence
2-7.1 Horizontal Polarization-Lossless Media
2-7.2 Vertical Polarization
2-8 Reflectivity and Transmissivity
2-9 Oblique Incidence onto a Lossy Medium
2-10 Oblique Incidence onto a Two-Layer Composite
2-10.1 Input Parameters
2-10.2 Propagation Matrix Method
2-10.3 Multiple Reflection Method
PROBLEMS
Chapter 3 Remote-Sensing Antennas
3-1 The Hertzian Dipole
3-2 Antenna Radiation Characteristics
3-2.1 Antenna Pattern
3-2.2 Beam Dimensions
3-2.3 Antenna Directivity
3-2.4 Antenna Gain
3-2.5 Radiation Efficiency
3-2.6 Effective Area of a Receiving Antenna
3-3 Friis Transmission Formula
3-4 Radiation by Large-Aperture Antennas
3-5 Rectangular Aperture with Uniform Field Distribution
3-5.1 Antenna Pattern in x-y Plane
3-5.2 Beamwidth
3-5.3 Directivity and Effective Area
3-6 Circular Aperture with Uniform Field Illumination
3-7 Nonuniform-Amplitude Illumination
3-8 Beam Efficiency
3-9 Antenna Arrays
3-10 N-Element Array with Uniform Phase Distribution
3-10.1 Uniform Amplitude Distribution
3-10.2 Grating Lobes
3-10.3 Binomial Distribution
3-11 Electronic Scanning of Arrays
3-12 Antenna Types
3-12.1 Horn Antennas
3-12.2 Slot Antennas
3-12.3 Microstrip Antennas
3-13 Active Antennas
3-13.1 Advantages of Active Antennas
3-13.2 Digital Beamforming with Active Antennas
PROBLEMS
Chapter 4 Microwave Dielectric Properties of Natural Earth Materials
4-1 Pure-Water Single-Debye Dielectric Model ( f = 50 GHz)
4-2 Saline-Water Double-Debye Dielectric Model ( f = 1000 GHz)
4-3 Dielectric Constant of Pure Ice
4-4 Dielectric Mixing Models for Heterogeneous Materials
4-4.1 Randomly Oriented Ellipsoidal Inclusions
4-4.2 Polder-van Santen/de Loor Formulas
4-4.3 Tinga-Voss-Blossey (TVB) Formulas
4-4.4 Other Dielectric Mixing Formulas
4-5 Sea Ice
4-5.1 Dielectric Constant of Brine
4-5.2 Brine Volume Fraction
4-5.3 Dielectric Properties
4-6 Dielectric Constant of Snow
4-6.1 Dry Snow
4-6.2 Wet Snow
4-7 Dielectric Constant of Dry Rocks
4-7.1 Powdered Rocks
4-7.2 Solid Rocks
4-8 Dielectric Constant of Soils
4-8.1 Dry Soil
4-8.2 Wet Soil
4-8.3 esoil in 0.3-1.5 GHz Band
4-9 Dielectric Constant of Vegetation
4-9.1 Dielectric Constant of Canopy Constituents
4-9.2 Dielectric Model
PROBLEMS
Chapter 5 Radar Scattering
5-1 Wave Polarization in a Spherical Coordinate System
5-2 Scattering Coordinate Systems
5-2.1 Forward Scattering Alignment (FSA) Convention
5-2.2 Backscatter Alignment (BSA)Convention
5-3 Scattering Matrix
5-3.1 FSA Convention
5-3.2 BSA Convention
5-4 Radar Equation
5-5 Scattering from Distributed Targets
5-5.1 Narrow-Beam Scatterometer
5-5.2 Imaging Radar
5-5.3 Specific Intensities for Distributed Target
5-6 RCS Statistics
5-7 Rayleigh Fading Model
5-7.1 Underlying Assumptions
5-7.2 Linear Detection
5-7.3 Square-Law Detection
5-7.4 Interpretation
5-8 Multiple Independent Samples
5-8.1 N-Look Amplitude Image
5-8.2 N-Look Intensity Image
5-8.3 N-Look Square-Root Intensity Image
5-8.4 Spatial Resolution vs. Radiometric Resolution
5-8.5 Applicability of the Rayleigh FadingModel
5-9 Image Texture and DespeckleFiltering
5-9.1 Image Texture
5-9.2 Despeckling Filters
5-10 Coherent and Noncoherent Scattering
5-10.1 Surface Roughness
5-10.2 Bistatic Scattering
5-10.3 Specular Reflectivity
5-10.4 Bistatic-Scattering Coefficient
5-10.5 Backscattering Response of a Smooth
5-11 Polarization Synthesis
5-11.1 RCS Polarization Response
5-11.2 Distributed Targets
5-11.3 Mueller Matrix Approach
5-12 Polarimetric Scattering Statistics
5-13 Polarimetric Analysis Tools
5-13.1 Scattering Covariance Matrix
5-13.2 Eigenvector Decomposition
5-13.3 Useful Polarimetric Parameters
5-13.4 Image Examples
5-13.5 Freeman-Durden Decomposition
Chapter 6 Microwave Radiometry and Radiative Transfer
6-1 Radiometric Quantities
6-2 Thermal Radiation
6-2.1 Quantum Theory of Radiation
6-2.2 Planck's Blackbody Radiation Law
6-2.3 The Rayleigh-Jeans Law
6-3 Power-Temperature
6-4 Radiation by Natural Materials
6-4.1 Brightness Temperature
6-4.2 Brightness Temperature Distribution
6-4.3 Antenna Temperature
6-5 Antenna Efficiency
6-5.1 Beam Efficiency
6-5.2 Radiation Efficiency
6-5.3 Radiometer Measurement Ambiguity
6-6 Theory of Radiative Transfer
6-6.1 Equation of Radiative Transfer
6-6.2 Brightness-Temperature Equation 6-6.3 Brightness Temperature of a Stratified
6-6.4 Brightness Temperature of a Scatter-Free Medium
6-6.5 Upwelling and Downwelling
6-7 Terrain Brightness Temperature
6-7.1 Brightness Transmission Across a
6-7.2 Emission by a Specular Surface
6-7.3 Emissivity of a Rough Surface
6-7.4 Extreme Surface Conditions
6-7.5 Emissivity of a Two-Layer Composite
6-8 Downward-Looking Satellite
6-9 Polarimetric Radiometry
6-10 Stokes Parameters and Periodic
Chapter 7 Microwave Radiometric Systems
7-1 Equivalent Noise Temperature
7-2 Characterization of Noise
7-2.1 Noise Figure
7-2.2 Equivalent Input Noise Temperature
7-2.3 Noise Temperature of a Cascaded
7-2.4 Noise Temperature of a Lossy Two-Port
7-3 Receiver and System Noise
7-3.1 Receiver Alone
7-3.2 Total System Including Antenna
7-4 Radiometer Operation
7-4.1 Measurement Accuracy
7-4.2 Total-Power Radiometer
7-4.3 Radiometric Resolution
7-5 Effects of Receiver Gain
7-6 Dicke Radiometer
7-7 Balancing Techniques
7-7.1 Reference-Channel Control Method
7-7.2 Antenna-Channel Noise-Injection
7-7.3 Pulsed Noise-Injection Method
7-7.4 Gain-Modulation Method
7-8 Automatic-Gain-Control (AGC)
7-9 Noise-Adding Radiometer
7-10 Summary of Radiometer
7-11 Radiometer Calibration
7-11.1 Receiver Calibration
7-11.2 Calibration Sources
7-11.3 Effects of Impedance Mismatches
7-11.4 Antenna Calibration
7-11.5 Cryoload Technique
7-11.6 Bucket Technique
7-12 Imaging Considerations
7-12.1 Scanning Configurations
7-12.2 Radiometer Uncertainty Principle
7-13 Interferometric Aperture Synthesis
7-13.1 Image Reconstruction
7-13.2 MIR Radiometric Sensitivity
7-14 Polarimetric Radiometer 7-14.2 Incoherent Detection
7-14.1 Coherent Detection
7-15 Calibration of Polarimetric
7-15.1 Forward Model for a Fully
7-15.2 Forward Model for the Polarimetric
7-15.3 Calibration by Inversion of the
7-16 Digital Radiometers
Chapter 8 Microwave Interaction with Atmospheric Constituents
8-1 Standard Atmosphere
8-1.1 Atmospheric Composition
8-1.2 Temperature Profile
8-1.3 Density Profile 8-1.5 Water-Vapor Density Profile
8-1.4 Pressure Profile
8-2 Absorption and Emission by
8-2.1 Electromagnetic Interaction with Individual Molecules
8-2.2 The Shape of a Spectral Line
8-2.3 Absorption Spectrum
8-2.4 Oxygen Spectrum
8-2.5 Water-Vapor Spectrum
8-2.6 Total Gaseous Spectrum
8-3 Opacity of the Clear Atmosphere
8-4 Emission by the Clear
8-5 Extinction by Hydrometeors
8-5.1 Electromagnetic Interaction with
8-5.2 Mie Scattering
8-5.3 Rayleigh Approximation
8-5.4 Frequency Response
8-6 Dielectric Properties of
8-6.1 Water Particles
8-6.2 Ice Particles
8-6.3 Snowflakes
8-7 Extinction and Backscattering by Clouds, Fog, or Haze
8-7.1 Drop-Size Distribution
8-7.2 Mie versus Rayleigh
8-7.3 The Rayleigh Volume Extinction Coefficient
8-7.4 Cloud Attenuation Above 50 GHz
8-7.5 Volume Backscattering Coefficient
8-8 Extinction and Backscattering by Rain
8-8.1 Drop-Size Distribution
8-8.2 Volume Extinction Coefficient
8-8.3 Volume Backscattering Coefficient
8-9 Radar Equation for Meteorology
8-10 Emission by Clouds and Rain
8-11 Error Sources and Estimation
8-11.1 Error Sources and Estimation Statistics
8-11.2 Model Validation
8-11.3 The Curse of Remote Sensing
Chapter 9 Radiometric Sounding of the Atmosphere
9-1 Atmospheric Weighting Function
9-1.1 Upward-Looking Temperature Weighting Function
9-1.2 Downward-Looking Temperature Weighting Function
9-2 Data Representation
9-2.1 Analysis of the Information Content of Atmospheric Sounding Data
9-2.2 Principal Components Analysis (PCA)
9-3 Inversion Techniques
9-3.1 General Formulation
9-3.2 Least-Squares Solution of the Ill-Posed Problem
9-3.3 Constrained Linear Inversion Method
9-3.4 Optimal Estimation Method
9-3.5 Statistical Inversion Method
9-3.6 Backus-Gilbert Synthetic-Averaging Inversion Method
9-3.7 Retrievals Based on Neural Networks
9-4 Temperature-Profile Retrieval from Ground-Based Observations
9-4.1 Single-Frequency Multiangle Observations
9-4.2 Multifrequency Single-Angle Observations
9-4.3 Pressure Height
9-5 Water-Vapor Profile Retrieval from Ground-Based Observations
9-6 Retrieval of Integrated Precipitable Water Vapor (IPWV) from Ground-Based Observations
9-7 Retrieval of Cloud Liquid-Water Path (LWP) from Ground-Based Observations
9-7.1 Physical Basis
9-7.2 Statistical Inversion
9-8 Estimation of Propagation Delay
9-9 Space-Based Atmospheric Sounding Radiometers
9-9.1 Vertical Shifting of the Weighting Functions
9-9.2 Swath Width
9-9.3 Cloud Sensitivity
9-9.4 Calibration
9-9.5 Modeling and Retrieval Algorithm Complexity
9-9.6 Compatibility with Other Sensors
9-10 Atmospheric Sounding by Downward-Looking Radiometers
9-10.1 Brightness Temperature
9-10.2 Examples of Retrieved Parameters
9-11 Atmospheric Limb Sounding
9-11.1 Fundamental Considerations
9-11.2 The NASA Aura Microwave Limb Sounder
9-12 Global Precipitation Mapping Using Atmospheric Sounding Observations
9-12.1 Physical Foundation: Attenuation and Scattering
9-12.2 Example: Precipitation Retrieval Using ATMS
9-13 GPS Radio Occultation
Chapter 10 Surface-Scattering Models and Land Observations
10-1 The Role of Scattering Models
10-2 Surface Parameters
10-2.1 rms Height
10-2.2 Surface Correlation Length
10-2.3 rms Slope
10-2.4 Fresnel Reflection Coefficient
10-2.5 Smooth-Surface Criteria
10-3 Surface-Scattering Models
10-3.1 I2EM Parameters
10-3.2 Multiscale Surfaces
10-3.3 Role of Correlation Function
10-3.4 Role of rms Height
10-3.5 Role of Correlation Length
10-3.6 Role of Dielectric Constant
10-3.7 Role of Polarization Ratios
10-3.8 Comparison with Experimental Backscattering Measurements
10-3.9 Comparison with Experimental Bistatic Measurements
10-3.10 Applicability of Surface Scattering Models
10-4 Scattering by Random and Periodic Surfaces
10-4.1 Backscattering by Nonperiodic Random Surfaces
10-4.2 Backscattering by Periodic Surfaces
10-5 PRISM (Polarimetric Radar Inversion for Soil Moisture)
10-5.1 Co-Pol and Cross-Pol Ratios
10-5.2 PRISM-1
10-5.3 PRISM-2
10-6 SMART (Soil Moisture Assessment Radar Technique)
10-7 Model Comparisons
10-8 Concluding Observations
Chapter 11 Volume-Scattering Models and Land Observations
11-1 Heuristic Single-Scattering Model for Vegetation
11-1.1 Direct Ground Contribution
11-1.2 Direct Volume Contribution-The Cloud Model
11-1.3 Canopy-Ground Contributions
11-1.4 Ground-Canopy-Ground Contribution
11-1.5 Single-Scattering Radiative Transfer Model
11-2 Isotropic and Rayleigh Scatterers
11-2.1 Canopy Elements as Isotropic Scatterers
11-2.2 Canopy Elements as Rayleigh Scatterers
11-3 Heuristic Single-Scattering Model for Snow-Covered Ground
11-4 Penetration Depth
11-5 Radiative Transfer Theory
11-5.1 Extinction Matrix
11-5.2 Phase Matrix
11-5.3 Scattering and Absorption Cross
11-5.4 Applicability Conditions
11-5.5 Phase Matrix of Simple Objects
11-5.6 Boundary Conditions for a Planar Interface
11-6 Iterative Solution of the Radiative Transfer Equation
11-6.1 Iterative-Solution Method
11-6.2 Upward- and Downward-Propagating Intensities
11-6.3 Zeroth-Order Solution
11-6.4 First-Order Solution
11-6.5 Rayleigh Scatterers
11-6.6 Distinct Upper Boundary
11-7 Approximate Form of S2RT/R Model
11-7.1 Applicability of the Single-Scattering Model
11-7.2 Comparison with Experimental Observations
11-8 Radar Observations of Vegetation Canopies
11-8.1 Penetration Depth in Soil
11-8.2 Propagation Properties of Cultural Vegetation
11-8.3 Extinction by a Canopy Containing Stalks
11-8.4 Role of Soil Surface Contribution
11-8.5 Relationship to Leaf-Area Index
11-8.6 Relationship to Canopy Water Content
11-9 Soil-Moisture Inversion Example
11-9.1 The Direct Model
11-9.2 The Inverse Model
11-10 Look-Direction Dependence
11-11 Effects of Dew, Wind, and Other Environmental Factors
11-12 Radar Backscattering from Tree Canopies
11-12.1 Propagation Properties of Forest Canopies
11-12.2 Angular and Frequency Response
11-12.3 MIMICS
11-12.4 Canopy Biophysical Parameters
11-12.5 Backscatter Response to Forest Parameters
11-12.6 Response at VHF-Band
11-12.7 Response at P- and L-Bands
11-13 SIR-C/X-SAR Case Study
11-13.1 Raco Supersite Description
11-13.2 Land-Cover Classification
11-13.3 Estimation of Forest Biophysical Parameters
11-14 Propagation Properties of Snow
11-14.1 Dry Snow
11-14.2 Wet Snow
11-15 Backscattering Behavior of Dry Snow
11-15.1 Radiative Transfer Model
11-15.2 Role of Snow-Ground Interface
11-15.3 Measuring Snow Thickness Over Sea Ice
11-16 Backscattering Behavior of Wet Snow
11-16.1 Angular Dependence
11-16.2 Frequency Dependence
11-16.3 Wetness Dependence
11-16.4 Diurnal Variations
11-16.5 Seasonal Variations
11-16.6 Millimeter-Wave Observations
Chapter 12 Emission Models and Land Observations
12-1 Emissivity and Reflectivity
12-2 Emission by a Specular Surface
12-3 Rough-Surface Emissivity
12-3.1 I2EM
12-3.2 Semiempirical Models
12-3.3 Model Parameters at L-Band
12-3.4 Model Parameters at Other Frequencies
12-4 Emission by a Periodic Surface
12-5 Radiative Transfer Equation for Vegetation-Covered Ground
12-5.1 Scalar Radiative Transfer Equation
12-5.2 Boundary Conditions
12-5.3 Weakly Scattering Medium
12-6 ZRT Model for Layer with Distinct Upper Boundary
12-7 Applicability of the ZRT Vegetation Model
12-7.1 Model Behavior for Specular Soil Soil Surface
12-7.2 Model Behavior for Moderately Rough Soil Surface
12-7.3 Experimental Observations
12-7.4 Single-Scattering Albedo
12-7.5 Vegetation Optical Thickness
12-8 Estimation of Soil Moisture and Vegetation Water Content
12-8.1 Single-Channel Soil Moisture Retrieval
12-8.2 Multichannel Soil Moisture Retrieval
12-8.3 Change Detection
12-9 Operational Satellite Missions
12-9.1 Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) Mission
12-9.2 Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP) Mission
12-10 Optical Depth and Emissivity of Forest Canopies
12-11 Emission by Snow-Covered Terrain
12-11.1 Radiative Transfer Models
12-11.2 Response of Dry Snow to Water Equivalent
12-11.3 Snow Classes
12-11.4 Snow Wetness
12-11.5 Diurnal Variations
12-11.6 Satellite Observations
12-12 Coherent and Incoherent Emissivities
12-12.1 Coherent Emissivity
12-12.2 Incoherent Emissivity
12-13 Microwave Emission by Lake Ice
Chapter 13 Radar Measurements and Scatterometers
13-1 CW Radar
13-1.1 Target Stationary Relative to Radar
13-1.2 Signal Scintillation
13-1.3 Target Moving Relative to Radar
13-2 Pulsed Radar
13-3 Range and Doppler Resolution
13-4 Frequency-Modulated Radar
13-5 Matched Filtering
13-6 Pulsed-FM Radar
13-7 Pulsed Radar, General Modulation
13-8 Measurement Precision
13-8.1 Effective Number of Samples
13-8.2 Radiometric Precision
13-9 Ambiguities in Radar
13-9.1 Range Ambiguity
13-9.2 Speed Ambiguity
13-9.3 Radar Ambiguity Function
13-10 Radar Calibration
13-10.1 Internal Calibration
13-10.2 External Calibration
13-10.3 Measurement Precision
13-11 Passive Calibration Targets
13-11.1 Flat Rectangular Plate
13-11.2 Flat Circular Plate
13-11.3 Sphere
13-11.4 Corner Reflector
13-11.5 Luneburg-Lens Reflector
13-11.6 Comparison of Calibration Targets
13-12 Active Radar Calibrators (ARCs)
13-13 Polarimetric Active Radar Calibrator
13-14 Polarimetric Scatterometers
13-14.1 Network Analyzer Principles of Operation
13-14.2 Network Analyzer Operation as a Scatterometer
13-14.3 Microwave Polarimetric Scatterometers
13-15 Calibration of Polarimetric Radars
13-15.1 System Distortion Matrices
13-15.2 Distortionless Antennas
13-15.3 Reciprocal Distortion Matrices
13-15.4 Matrix Inversion
13-15.5 Antennas with Diagonal Distortion Matrices
13-15.6 Nonreciprocal Systems with Full Distortion Matrices
13-16 GNSS-R Bistatic Radar
13-16.1 The Delay Doppler Map
13-16.2 The Cyclone Global Navigation Satellite System (CYGNSS)
Chapter 14 Real- and Synthetic-Aperture Side-Looking Airborne Radar
14-1 Introduction
14-2 Real-Aperture SLAR
14-2.1 SLAR Resolution
14-2.2 The SLAR Radar Equation
14-2.3 SLAR Systems
14-3 Synthetic-Aperture Radar (SAR)
14-3.1 Ways to Consider SAR
14-3.2 Synthesized Aperture
14-3.3 Doppler Beam-Sharpening Approach
14-3.4 Correlation or Matched Filtering with Reference Point-Target Response
14-3.5 Dechirping Comparable with Range Pulse-Compression Dechirping
14-3.6 Optical-Focusing Equivalent of SAR
14-4 SAR Resolution
14-4.1 Synthesized-Aperture Point of View
14-4.2 Unfocused SAR
14-4.3 Doppler Point of View
14-4.4 Comparison of Real-Aperture and Synthetic-Aperture Resolution
14-5 Ambiguity Considerations in SAR
14-5.1 Scanning Synthetic-Aperture Radar
14-5.2 Other SAR Observation Geometries
14-6 SAR Power Considerations
14-6.1 SAR SNR Equation
14-6.2 Radiometric Resolution
14-7 SAR System Configurations
14-8 Speckle in Radar Images
14-8.1 Speckle in SLAR Images
14-8.2 Speckle in SAR Images
14-9 Introduction to SAR Processing
14-9.1 SAR Signal Spectra
14-9.2 Range Migration
14-9.3 Depth of Focus
14-9.4 SAR Image Processing: The Range-Doppler Algorithm
14-9.5 SAR Image Processing: the Backprojection Algorithm
14-10 Geometric Distortion in Radar Images
14-10.1 Elevation Distortion
14-10.2 Range Distortion
14-10.3 SLAR Motion Distortion
14-10.4 SAR Motion Errors
14-10.5 SAR Attitude Errors
14-11 Elevations from SLAR and SAR
14-11.1 Shadows
14-11.2 Stereo with Radar
14-11.3 Squint Stereo
14-11.4 Mountains and Buildings
14-12 Ionospheric Effects
14-12.1 Rotation Angle
14-12.2 Impact on SAR Data
14-12.3 Impact on Radiometric Data
Chapter 15 Interferometric Synthetic-Aperture Radar
15-1 Brief History of Radar
15-2 2-D versus 3-D Measurements
15-2.1 Interferometric Phase
15-2.2 Height Measurement Precision
15-2.3 The Role of SNR
15-3 Cartographic Corrections
15-4 Forming the Radar Interferogram
15-4.1 Displacement versus Range
15-4.2 Offset Determination
15-4.3 Multilooking
15-4.4 Correlation
15-5 Decorrelation
15-5.1 Speckle
15-5.2 Decorrelation Model
15-5.3 Calculation of Spatial Baseline Decorrelation
15-5.4 Rotational Decorrelation
15-5.5 Temporal Decorrelation
15-6 Measurement of Topography
15-6.1 Inferring Topography from Interferometric Phase
15-6.2 Phase Unwrapping
15-6.3 Curved-Earth Phase Pattern
15-7 Mapping Earth's Topography: The SRTM Mission
15-8 Along-Track Interferometry
15-8.1 Temporal Baseline
15-8.2 Ocean Currents
15-9 Measuring Surface Deformation
15-10 Worldwide Dual Satellite InSAR Coverage: The TanDEM-X Mission
15-11 Time-Series InSAR Applications
15-11.1 Stacking
15-11.2 Small Baseline Subset Analysis (SBAS)
15-11.3 Persistent Scattering (PS)
Chapter 16 Radar Remote Sensing of the Ocean
16-1 Wind-Vector Scatterometry
16-2 Wind and Wave Modeling
16-2.1 Wind
16-2.2 Waves
16-3 Radar Scattering
16-3.1 Ocean Surface Statistics
16-3.2 IEM Scattering Model
16-3.3 Comparison with Measurements
16-3.4 Empirical Fits for IEM Parameters
16-3.5 The Wind Geophysical Model Function
16-4 Rain
16-4.1 Modeling the Surface Effects of Rain
16-4.2 Perturbation Model Regimes
16-5 Wind Scatterometers
16-5.1 Scatterometer Viewing Geometry
16-5.2 Fan-Beam Wind Scatterometers
16-6 Measurement Precision
16-6.1 Doppler-Filtering Scatterometers
16-6.2 Range-ResolutionWind Scatterometers
16-7 Scanning Pencil-Beam Wind Scatterometers
16-7.1 Scanning Loss
16-7.2 Measurement Precision
16-7.3 Dealing with Rain
16-8 Wind-Vector Retrieval
16-8.1 Noise-Free Retrieval Algorithm
16-8.2 Retrieval in the Presence of Noise
16-9 SAR Imaging of OceanWinds
16-10 Properties of Sea Ice
16-10.1 The Nature of Sea Ice
16-10.2 Physical Properties
16-10.3 Penetration Depth in Sea Ice
16-11 Sea-Ice Radar Scattering
16-11.1 Ocean versus Sea-Ice Discrimination
16-11.2 Discriminating between Different Ice Types
16-11.3 Measuring Ice Thickness
16-11.4 Snow on Sea Ice
16-11.5 Scatterometer Mapping of Sea-Ice Extent
16-11.6 Scatterometer Mapping of Sea-Ice Type
16-12 Radar Imaging of Sea Ice
16-13 Iceberg Tracking
16-14 Radar Detection of Oil Spills
16-14.1 SAR Observation of Oil Slicks
16-14.2 Scatterometer Observation of Oil Slicks
Chapter 17 Spaceborne Altimetry
17-1 Introduction
17-2 Signal Modeling
17-2.1 Ocean Surface Signal Model
17-2.2 Land-Surface Signal Modeling
17-3 Height Estimation Errors and Corrections
17-3.1 Precision Orbit Determination
17-3.2 Atmospheric Effects
17-3.3 Sea-State and EM Bias
17-3.4 Significant Wave Height
17-3.5 Wind Speed
17-3.6 Topography
17-3.7 Bathymetry
17-4 Practical Sensor Considerations
17-4.1 Range Compression and Deramping
17-4.2 Range Tracking
17-4.3 Orbit Considerations
17-5 Synthetic-Aperture Altimetry
17-6 Wide-Swath or Imaging Altimetry
17-7 CryoSat-2 Mission
Chapter 18 Radiometric Remote Sensing of the Ocean
18-1 Brightness Temperature of the Sea Surface
18-1.1 Spectral Sensitivity
18-1.2 Brightness Temperature of a Smooth Surface
18-1.3 Penetration Depth in Sea Water
18-2 Measurement of Sea-Surface Temperature and Salinity
18-2.1 Sensitivity Analysis for Salinity
18-2.2 Sensitivity Analysis for Sea-Surface Temperature
18-2.3 Satellite Measurement of SST
18-2.4 Satellite Measurement of SSS
18-3 Measurement of Near-Surface Wind Vector
18-3.1 Azimuth Variation
18-3.2 Wind-Speed Dependence
18-3.3 WindSat Retrieval Algorithm
18-4 Mapping Sea-Ice Type and Concentration
18-4.1 Coherent versus Incoherent Emissivity
18-4.2 Aircraft Observations
18-4.3 Models for the Emissivity of Sea Ice
18-4.4 Satellite Observations
18-4.5 Sea-Ice Algorithms
18-5 Oil-Slick Detection
18-5.1 Emissivity of an Oil-CoveredWater Surface
18-5.2 Airborne Observations
Appendix A
Appendix B
Appendix C
Appendix D
Bibliography
Index

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Microwave Radar and Radiometric Remote Sensing

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