Handbook of Measurement in Science and Engineering, Volume 1
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VOLUME 1
PREFACE xxiii
CONTRIBUTORS xxvii
PART I CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 1
1 New and Emerging Technologies in Structural Health Monitoring 3 Merit Enckell, Jacob Egede Andersen, Branko Glisic, and Johan Silfwerbrand
1.1 Introduction, 5
1.2 Background, 6
1.3 New and Emerging Technologies, 8
1.4 Fiber-Optic Technology, 16
1.5 Acoustic Emission, 24
1.6 Radar Technology, 27
1.7 Global Positioning System, 31
1.8 Corrosion Monitoring Systems, 33
1.9 Weigh-in-Motion (WIM) Systems, 35
1.10 Components of Structural Health Monitoring System, 37
1.11 Structural Health Monitoring System Design, 41
1.12 System Procurement and Installation, 44
1.13 Application of Structural Health Monitoring Systems, 47
1.14 Discussion, 67
1.15 Conclusion, 69
Acknowledgments, 70
References, 71
2 Applications of GIS in Engineering Measurements 79 Gary S. Spring
2.1 Introduction, 79
2.2 Background, 80
2.3 Basic Principles of GIS, 81
2.4 Measurement-Based GIS Applications, 96
2.5 Implementation Issues, 97
2.6 Conclusion, 100
References, 102
3 Traffic Congestion Management 105 Nagui M. Rouphail
3.1 Introduction and Background, 105
3.2 Scope of the Chapter, 106
3.3 Organization of the Chapter, 107
3.4 Fundamentals of Vehicle Emission Estimation, 107
3.5 Inventory of Traffic Congestion Management Methods, 112
3.6 Assessing Emission Impacts of Traffic Congestion Management, 119
3.7 Summary, 128
Acknowledgments, 129
References, 129
4 Seismic Testing of Highway Bridges 133 Eric V. Monzon, Ahmad M. Itani, and Gokhan Pekcan
4.1 Introduction, 133
4.2 Similitude Requirements, 134
4.3 Specimen Fabrication, 141
4.4 Input Motion, 148
4.5 Instrumentation, 150
4.6 Data Acquisition and Processing, 155
4.7 Results, 157
References, 158
5 Measurements in Environmental Engineering 159 Daniel A. Vallero
5.1 Introduction, 159
5.2 Environmental Sampling Approaches, 166
5.3 Laboratory Analysis, 169
5.4 Measurement Uncertainty, 183
5.5 Measurement Decision Making, 186
5.6 Environmental Indicators, 191
5.7 Extending Measurement Data Using Models, 199
5.8 Summary, 200
Nomenclature, 200
References, 202
6 Hydrology Measurements 205 Todd C. Rasmussen
6.1 Introduction, 206
6.2 Precipitation, 209
6.3 Evapotranspiration, 212
6.4 Surface Flow, 216
6.5 Groundwater, 219
6.6 Soil Water, 223
6.7 Water Quality, 226
Suggested Readings, 231
7 Mobile Source Emissions Testing 233 Mohan Venigalla
7.1 Testing for Regulatory Compliance, 234
References, 240
PART II MECHANICAL AND BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING 241
8 Dimensions, Surfaces, and their Measurement 243 Mikell P. Groover
8.1 Dimensions, Tolerances, and Related Attributes, 244
8.2 Conventional Measuring Instruments and Gages, 245
8.3 Surfaces, 254
References, 256
9 Mass Properties Measurement 259 David Tellet
9.1 Introduction, 260
9.2 Mass and Weight, 262
9.3 Measurement Methodology, 264
9.4 Weight and Mass Measurement, 274
9.5 Center of Gravity Measurement, 275
9.6 MOI Measurement, 280
9.7 POI Measurement, 284
9.8 Measuring Large Vehicles, 287
9.9 Sources of Uncertainty, 292
References, 300
10 Force Measurement 301 Patrick Collins
10.1 Introduction, 302
10.2 Force Transducers, 303
10.3 Universal Testing Machines, 306
10.4 The Strain Gauge Sensor, 307
10.5 Resonant Element Transducers, 311
10.6 Surface Acoustic Wave Transducers, 314
10.7 Dynamometers, 317
10.8 Optical Force Transducers, 317
10.9 Magneto-Elastic Transducers, 320
10.10 Force Balance Transducers, 321
10.11 Force Transducer Characteristics, 321
10.12 Calibration, 323
10.13 Conclusion, 329
Glossary of Terms, 329
References, 340
11 Resistive Strain Measurement Devices 343 Mark Tuttle
11.1 Preliminary Discussion, 343
11.2 Resistance Metal Strain Gages, 349
11.3 Semiconductor Strain Gages, 363
11.4 Liquid Metal Strain Gages, 365
References, 366
12 Vibration Measurement 367 Sheryl M. Gracewski and Nigel D. Ramoutar
12.1 Introduction, 367
12.2 One-Degree-of-Freedom System Response, 369
12.3 Multi-Degree-of-Freedom Systems and the Frequency Response Function, 373
12.4 Vibration Measurement Equipment and Techniques, 388
12.5 Experimental Modal Analysis, 405
12.6 Applications of Vibration Measurement, 423
Nomenclature, 428
References, 431
13 Acoustical Measurements 433 Brian E. Anderson, Jonathan D. Blotter, Kent L. Gee, and Scott D. Sommerfeldt
13.1 Introduction, 434
13.2 Fundamental Measures, 436
13.3 Microphones, 445
13.4 Sound Pressure Level Measurements, 451
13.5 Measurement of Sound Isolation, 454
13.6 Room Acoustics Measurements, 457
13.7 Community and Environmental Noise, 463
13.8 Sound Intensity Measurements, 465
13.9 Sound Power Measurements, 472
13.10 Sound Exposure Measurements, 476
References, 479
14 Temperature Measurement 483 Peter R. N. Childs
Summary, 484
14.1 Introduction, 484
14.2 Selection, 487
14.3 Invasive Temperature Measurement, 489
14.4 Semi-Invasive Methods, 511
14.5 Noninvasive Methods, 514
14.6 Conclusions, 519
Nomenclature, 519
References, 521
15 Pressure and Velocity Measurements 527 Richard S. Figliola and Donald E. Beasley
15.1 Pressure Concepts, 528
15.2 Pressure Reference Instruments, 530
15.3 Pressure Transducers, 536
15.4 Pressure Transducer Calibration, 543
15.5 Pressure Measurements in Moving Fluids, 544
15.6 Modeling Pressure and Fluid Systems, 548
15.7 Design and Installation: Transmission Effects, 548
15.8 Fluid Velocity Measuring Systems, 552
Nomenclature, 563
References, 564
16 Luminescent Method for Pressure Measurement 567 Gamal E. Khalil, Jim W. Crafton, Sergey D. Fonov, Marvin Sellers, and Dana Dabiri
16.1 Introduction, 567
16.2 Principles of Pressure-Sensitive Paint, 569
16.3 Pressure-Sensitive Luminescent Dyes, 571
16.4 PSP Polymer and Binder, 572
16.5 Measurement Methods, 574
16.6 Pressure-Sensitive Paint Measurements, 588
Acknowledgments, 611
References, 612
17 Flow Measurement 615 Jesse Yoder
17.1 New-Technology and Traditional Technology Flowmeters, 616
17.2 Trends in Flow Measurement, 627
Further Readings, 628
18 Heat Flux Measurement 629 Thomas E. Diller
18.1 Introduction, 630
18.2 Important Issues, 631
18.3 Gages Based on Spatial Temperature Difference, 634
18.4 Gages Based on Temperature Change with Time, 643
18.5 Gages Based on Active Heating Methods, 648
18.6 Calibration and Errors, 653
References, 655
19 Heat Transfer Measurements for Nonboiling Two-Phase Flow 661 Afshin J. Ghajar and Clement C. Tang
19.1 Introduction, 661
19.2 Experimental Setup for Horizontal and Slightly Inclined Pipes, 662
19.3 Instruments for Measurement and Data Acquisition, 666
19.4 Heat Transfer Experiment Procedures, 667
19.5 Verifying the Functionality of the Experimental Setup, 670
19.6 Experimental Results of Two-Phase Flow, 673
19.7 Concluding Remarks, 682
Nomenclature, 683
References, 684
20 Solar Energy Measurements 687 Tariq Muneer and Yieng Wei Tham
20.1 Introduction, 688
20.2 Measurement Equipment, 694
20.3 Equipment Error and Uncertainty, 703
20.4 Operational Errors, 704
20.5 Diffuse Radiation Data Measurement Errors, 704
20.6 Types of Sensors and their Accuracy, 711
20.7 Modern Developments, 711
20.8 Data Quality Assessment, 714
20.9 Statistical Evaluation of Models, 716
20.10 Outlier Analysis, 722
Acknowledgments, 722
References, 723
21 Wind Energy Measurements 727 Peter Gregg
21.1 Introduction, 728
21.2 Concepts, 728
21.3 Measurements, 731
21.4 Evaluation, 739
References, 747
22 Human Movement Measurements 749 Rahman Davoodi
22.1 Introduction, 749
22.2 Characterization of Human Movement, 750
22.3 Optical Motion Capture Systems, 751
22.4 Magnetic Motion Capture Systems, 754
22.5 Inertial Motion Capture Systems, 756
22.6 Discussion, 761
Acknowledgment, 762
References, 762
23 Flow Measurement 765 Arnold A. Fontaine, Keefe B. Manning, and Steven Deutsch
23.1 Introduction, 765
23.2 Flow Measurement Applications, 768
References, 799
PART III INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING 803
24 Statistical Quality Control 805 Magd E. Zohdi
24.1 Measurements and Quality Control, 805
24.2 Dimension and Tolerance, 805
24.3 Quality Control, 806
24.4 Interrelationship of Tolerances of Assembled Products, 812
24.5 Operation Characteristic (OC) Curve, 812
24.6 Control Charts for Attributes, 812
24.7 Acceptance Sampling, 815
24.8 Defense Department Acceptance Sampling by Variables, 817
Further Readings, 817
25 Evaluating and Selecting Technology-Based Projects 819 Hans J. Thamhain
25.1 Management Perspective, 819
25.2 Quantitative Approaches, 821
25.3 Qualitative Approaches, 826
25.4 Recommendations, 828
Variables and Abbreviations, 831
References, 831
26 Manufacturing Systems Evaluation 833 Walter W. Olson
26.1 Introduction, 833
26.2 Components of Environmentally Conscious Manufacturing, 834
26.3 Manufacturing Systems, 835
26.4 System Effects on ECM, 838
26.5 Assessment, 840
26.6 Summary, 844
References, 845
27 Measuring Performance of Chemical Process Equipment 847 Alan Cross
27.1 Introduction, 847
27.2 Direct Fired Heater Measurement and Process Control
Instrumentation, 848
27.3 Crushing and Grinding Equipment Measurements, 851
References, 858
28 Industrial Energy Efficiency 859 B. Gopalakrishnan, D. P. Gupta, Y. Mardikar, and S. Chaudhari
28.1 Introduction, 860
28.2 Literature Review, 863
28.3 Data Analysis of Energy Efficiency Measures, 864
28.4 Energy Efficiency Measures in Major Energy Consuming
Equipment, 872
28.5 Case Studies of Development of Energy-Efficiency Measures, 879
28.6 Conclusion, 881
Acknowledgments, 881
References, 881
29 Industrial Waste Auditing 885 C. Visvanathan
29.1 Overview, 885
29.2 Waste-Minimization Programs, 886
29.3 Waste-Minimization Cycle, 888
29.4 Waste Auditing, 890
29.5 Conclusion, 909
Further Readings, 910
30 Organizational Performance Measurement 911 Jennifer A. Farris, Eileen M. Van Aken, and Geert Letens
30.1 Introduction, 911
30.2 Summary, 940
References, 940
INDEX
CHAPTER 1
NEW AND EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES IN STRUCTURAL HEALTH MONITORING
MERIT ENCKELL, JACOB EGEDE ANDERSEN, BRANKO GLISIC, AND JOHAN SILFWERBRAND
1.3 New and emerging technologies
1.3.2 Fiber-optic sensors (FOS)
1.3.3 The global positioning system (GPS)
1.3.4 Microelectromechanical Systems
1.3.7 Nondestructive testing (NDT)
1.3.10 Smart technical textiles
1.3.11 Specific issues around usage of new technologies
1.3.12 Chosen technologies and motivation
1.4.2 Sensors based on Sagnac, Michelson, and Mach-Zehnder interferometers
1.4.3 Sensor based on the Fiber Bragg Gratings
1.4.4 Sensors based on Fabry-Perot interferometry
1.4.5 Best performances of discrete FOS
1.5.1 Theory of acoustic emission
1.5.2 Sources of acoustic emission
1.5.3 The development of acoustic emission in industry and civil engineering
1.5.4 Acoustic emission systems
1.5.5 Codes, standards, and recommended practice in acoustic emission
1.6.2 Ground-penetrating radar
1.8 Corrosion monitoring systems
1.9 Weigh-in-motion (WIM) systems
1.10 Components of structural health monitoring system
1.10.2 Data acquisition system
1.10.3 Data processing and control system
1.11 Structural health monitoring system design
1.11.1 Structural analysis for new structure
1.11.2 Structural analysis for existing structure
1.11.4 Data acquisition issues
1.11.5 Responsibilities and installation planning
1.12 System procurement and installation
1.12.5 System efficiency and redundancy
1.12.6 Dismantling environmental issues
1.13 Application of structural health monitoring systems
1.13.1 High-rise building, Singapore-2001
1.13.2 The New Årsta Railway Bridge, Sweden-2005
1.13.3 Stonecutters Bridge, Hong Kong-2010
1.13.4 Severn River Crossing, UK-2010
1.13.5 A4 Hammersmith Flyover, UK-2010
1.13.6 Streicker Bridge, United States-2010
1.13.7 Messina Bridge, Italy-2018
1.14.1 Development of new and emerging technologies
1.14.3 Need for education and collaboration
1.14.4 Future use and development
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) and modern sensory technology together with advanced data acquisition are currently available for various applications. The area of monitoring is also very wide and incorporates several disciplines. Civil engineers working with monitoring have to cooperate very closely with various kinds of specialists to assure that the chosen monitoring system provides the information that they are looking for.
Organized SHM became a well-known concept during the last decades. Health Monitoring according to Aktan et al. (2000), may be defined as
the measurement of the operating and loading environment and the critical responses of a structure to track and evaluate the symptoms of operational incidents, anomalies, and/or deterioration or damage indicators that may affect operation, serviceability, or safety reliability
SHM helps to control and verify structural behavior: the condition or changes in the condition of a structure. SHM gives more improved and precise information than visual inspection about the real condition of the structure at real time. Decision making concerning the maintenance, economy, and the safety of the structures is easier with an appropriate Structural Health Monitoring System (SHMS).
Factors such as shortened construction periods, increased traffic loads, new high speed trains causing new dynamic and fatigue problems, new materials, new construction solutions, slender constructions, limited economy, and need for timesaving demanded for better control as well as verification and benefited for SHM.
Old deteriorated structures, especially, the ones that do suffer about fatigue effects may have malfunction and could collapse. But also structures that are not at the end of their lifetime do fail. Some serious collapses have taken place in recent years, for example, Sport Arena Bad Reichenhall in south Germany and Arena in Katowice, south Poland in 2006; I-35W Mississippi River bridge in Minnesota, United States in 2007. Many people were killed and injured caused by these mentioned collapses. The newly built bridges called Gröndal Bridge and Alvik Bridge in Stockholm revealed extensive cracking in the webs of their concrete hollow box girder sections just after a few years of operation (Sundquist and James, 2004), and two tension rods and a crossbeam from a recently installed repair collapsed in Oakland Bay Bridge, San Francisco in 2009, causing the bridge to be closed temporarily. Structures also do collapse during the construction period, and workers may be killed or injured as recently for the cable-stayed bridge across the Chambal River in India. SHM can start with a sensor installation and monitoring already during the construction period and therefore provide information throughout the whole life span of the structure: construction, testing, operation and also demolition. It may capture the behavior that visual inspection does not accomplish and therefore there is possibility that it may save human life.
The rapid development of technology in the fields of sensors, data acquisition and communication, signal analysis and data processing provide SHM with great profit. Buildings, bridges, wind farms, nuclear power plants, geotechnical structures, historical buildings and monuments, dams, offshore platforms, pipelines, ocean structures, airplanes, wind plants, turbine blades, and so on, may be objects for monitoring activities. The monitoring can be periodic or continuous, short term or long term, local or global, and the monitoring system can consist of a few sensors up to hundreds or even thousands of them depending on the demands of the monitoring object.
Structural Health Monitoring System for a structure consists of sensors, data acquisition systems, data transfer and storage systems, data management that normally includes data analysis as well as presentation, and data interpretation. The number of sensors used in monitoring is endless. Different applications with various techniques such as electrical, optical, acoustical, and geodetical are available. Various parameters such as strain, displacement, inclination, stress, pressure, humidity, temperature, different chemical quantities, and environmental parameters such as wind speed and direction can be monitored.
Conventional sensors used for civil engineering such as strain gauges, traditional accelerometers, inclinometers, load cells, vibrating wires, linear variable differential transformers (LVDT) are able to measure many parameters and have a long experience in use. On the other hand, the evolution of emerging technologies together with computer-based data acquisition, advanced signal and data communication have made the evaluation of new techniques and sensors for civil engineering purposes possible.
Fiber-optic sensors, microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), optical distance measurement techniques, acoustic emission, and different type of lasers and radars have been under great development in recent years and are now available on the market. They are characterized by high accuracy, straightforward usage, and data-collecting concept. These techniques often allow very delicate measuring in harsh conditions and in various applications. The automatic collection of the data saves time, and it has advantages with respect to manual measurements. The reliability and durability of the sensors become significant when choosing the appropriate instrumentation. These new high-tech sensors also allow for not only high accuracy but also high precision, high and constant sensitivity, stability over time, no drift, and they are often temperature compensated.
The market with fiber-optic sensors and their applications is massive. There are several different techniques and various kinds of sensors that also can be modified for unique monitoring needs for a particular structure. Fiber-optic sensors allow for measurements that have been unpractical or too costly with the traditional sensor technology. Hundreds measuring points along the same fiber, as well as distributed sensing, versatility, insensitivity for electromagnetic fields, operability...
