Handbook of Environmental Engineering
Description
Written by noted experts, Handbook of Environmental Engineering offers a comprehensive guide to environmental engineers who desire to contribute to mitigating problems, such as flooding, caused by extreme weather events, protecting populations in coastal areas threatened by rising sea levels, reducing illnesses caused by polluted air, soil, and water from improperly regulated industrial and transportation activities, promoting the safety of the food supply.
Contributors not only cover such timely environmental topics related to soils, water, and air, minimizing pollution created by industrial plants and processes, and managing wastewater, hazardous, solid, and other industrial wastes, but also treat such vital topics as porous pavement design, aerosol measurements, noise pollution control, and industrial waste auditing. This important handbook:
* Enables environmental engineers to treat problems in systematic ways
* Discusses climate issues in ways useful for environmental engineers
* Covers up-to-date measurement techniques important in environmental engineering
* Reviews current developments in environmental law for environmental engineers
* Includes information on water quality and wastewater engineering
* Informs environmental engineers about methods of dealing with industrial and municipal waste, including hazardous waste
Designed for use by practitioners, students, and researchers, Handbook of Environmental Engineering contains the most recent information to enable a clear understanding of major environmental issues.
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MYER KUTZ is the head of Myer Kutz Associates, Inc. For the past several years, he has focused on developing engineering handbooks and encyclopedias on a wide range of technical topics. Earlier, his firm supplied consulting services to a large client roster, including Fortune 500 companies, scientific societies, and large and small publishers.
Content
List of Contributors xiii
Preface xv
1 Environmental Systems Analysis 1
Adisa Azapagic
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Environmental Systems Analysis Methods 1
1.3 Summary 11
References 11
2 Measurements in Environmental Engineering 13
Daniel A. Vallero
Summary 13
2.1 Introduction 13
2.2 Environmental Sampling Approaches 18
2.3 Laboratory Analysis 22
2.4 Sources of Uncertainty 25
2.5 Measurements and Models 27
2.6 Contaminants of Concern 27
2.7 Environmental Indicators 31
2.8 Emerging Trends in Measurement 33
2.9 Measurement Ethics 40
Note 41
References 41
3 Environmental Law for Engineers 45
Jana B. Milford
3.1 Introduction and General Principles 45
3.2 Common Law 48
3.3 The National Environmental Policy Act 50
3.4 Clean Air Act 52
3.5 Clean Water Act 55
3.6 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 58
3.7 CERCLA 61
3.8 Enforcement and Liability 62
Notes 65
4 Climate Modeling 67
Huei-Ping Huang
4.1 Introduction 67
4.2 Historical Development 67
4.3 Numerical Architecture of the Dynamical Core 68
4.4 Physical and Subgrid-Scale Parameterization 71
4.5 Coupling among the Major Components of the Climate System 73
4.6 The Practice of Climate Prediction and Projection 73
4.7 Statistical Model 77
4.8 Outlook 77
References 78
5 Climate Change Impact Analysis for the Environmental Engineer 83
Panshu Zhao, John R. Giardino, and Kevin R. Gamache
5.1 Introduction 83
5.2 Earth System's Critical Zone 84
5.3 Perception,Risk, and Hazard 87
5.4 Climatology Methods 94
5.5 Geomorphometry:The Best Approach for Impact Analysis 99
References 114
6 Adaptation Design to Sea Level Rise 119
Mujde Erten-Unal and Mason Andrews
6.1 Introduction: Sea Level Rise 119
6.2 Existing Structures and Adaptation Design to Sea Level Rise 120
6.3 Case Studies Reflecting Adaptation Design Solutions 124
Notes 135
References 135
7 Soil Physical Properties and Processes 137
Morteza Sadeghi, Ebrahim Babaeian, Emmanuel Arthur, Scott B. Jones, and Markus Tuller
7.1 Introduction 137
7.2 Basic Properties of Soils 137
7.3 Water Flow in Soils 158
7.4 Solute Transport 173
7.5 Soil Temperature, Thermal Properties, and Heat Flow 182
7.6 Summary 194
Acknowledgments 194
Abbreviations 194
Physical Constants and Variables 195
References 198
8 In Situ Soil and Sediment Remediation: Electrokinetic and Electrochemical Methods 209
Sibel Pamukcu
8.1 Introduction and Background 209
8.2 Overview and Theory of Direct Electric Current in Soil and Sediment Remediation 211
8.3 Electrokinetically and Electrochemically Aided Soil and Sediment Remediation 222
8.4 Summary and Conclusions 239
References 240
9 Remote Sensing of Environmental Variables and Fluxes 249
Morteza Sadeghi, Ebrahim Babaeian, Ardeshir M. Ebtehaj, Scott B. Jones, and Markus Tuller
9.1 Introduction 249
9.2 RadiativeTransfer Theory 249
9.3 RS Technology 255
9.4 RS of Static Soil Properties 263
9.5 RS of State Variables 269
9.6 RS of Environmental Fluxes 282
9.7 Summary 287
Acknowledgments 288
Abbreviations 288
Physical Constants and Variables 289
References 290
10 Environmental Fluid Mechanics 303
Nigel B. Kaye, Abdul A. Khan, and Firat Y. Testik
10.1 Open- Channel Flow 303
10.2 Surface Waves 308
10.3 Groundwater Flow 310
10.4 Advection and Diffusion 313
10.5 Turbulent Jets 318
10.6 Turbulent Buoyant Plumes 320
10.7 Gravity Currents 326
References 329
11 Water Quality 333
Steven C. Chapra
11.1 Introduction 333
11.2 Historical Background 334
11.3 Overview of Modern Water Quality 336
11.4 Natural or "Conventional" Water Quality Problems 339
11.5 Toxic Substances 345
11.6 Emerging Water Pollutants 348
11.7 Back to the Future 348
Note 349
References 349
12 Wastewater Engineering 351
Say Kee Ong
12.1 Introduction 351
12.2 Wastewater Characteristics and Treatment Requirements 351
12.3 Treatment Technologies 355
12.4 Summary 371
References 371
13 Wastewater Recycling 375
Judith L. Sims and Kirsten M. Sims
13.1 Introduction 375
13.2 Uses of Reclaimed Wastewater 376
13.3 Reliability Requirements for Wastewater Reclamation and Recycling Systems 414
13.4 Planning and Funding for Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse 416
13.5 Legal and Regulatory Issues 416
13.6 Public Involvement and Participation 418
13.7 Additional Considerations for Wastewater Recycling and Reclamation: Integrated Resource Recovery 418
13.8 Additional Sources of Information 423
References 423
14 Design of Porous Pavements for Improved Water Quality and Reduced Runoff 425
Will Martin, Milani Sumanasooriya, Nigel B. Kaye, and Brad Putman
14.1 Introduction 425
14.2 Benefits 428
14.3 Hydraulic Characterization 430
14.4 Hydraulic and Hydrologic Behavior 435
14.5 Design, Construction, and Maintenance 442
References 448
15 Air Pollution Control Engineering 453
Kumar Ganesan and Louis Theodore
15.1 Overview of Air Quality 453
15.2 Emissions of Particulates 453
15.3 Control of Particulates 459
15.4 Control of Gaseous Compounds 476
Acknowledgment 491
References 491
Further Reading 491
16 Atmospheric Aerosols and Their Measurement 493
Christian M. Carrico
16.1 Overview of Particulate Matter in the Atmosphere 493
16.2 History and Regulation 493
16.3 Particle Concentration Measurements 494
16.4 Measuring Particle Sizing Characteristics 497
16.5 Ambient Aerosol Particle Size Distribution Measurements 498
16.6 Aerosol Measurements: Sampling Concerns 501
16.7 Aerosol Formation and Aging Processes 501
16.8 Aerosol Optical Properties: Impacts on Visibility and Climate 502
16.9 Measurements of Aerosol Optical Properties 505
16.10 Aerosol Chemical Composition 506
16.11 Aerosol Hygroscopicity 509
16.12 Aerosols,Meteorology, and Climate 511
16.13 Aerosol Emission Control Technology 513
16.14 Summary and Conclusion 515
References 515
17 Indoor Air Pollution 519
Shelly L. Miller
17.1 Introduction 519
17.2 Completely Mixed Flow Reactor Model 522
17.3 Deposition Velocity 524
17.4 Ultraviolet Germicidal Irradiation 526
17.5 Filtration of Particles and Gases 528
17.6 Ventilation and Infiltration 532
17.7 Ventilation Measurements 536
17.8 Thermal Comfort and Psychrometrics 539
17.9 Energy Efficiency Retrofits 541
17.10 Health Effects of Indoor Air Pollution 542
17.11 Radon Overview 546
17.12 Sources of Indoor Radon 548
17.13 Controlling Indoor Radon 550
17.14 Particles in Indoor Air 551
17.15 Bioaerosols 553
17.16 Volatile Organic Compounds 555
17.17 VOC Surface Interactions 556
17.18 Emissions Characterization 557
17.19 Odors 559
Acknowledgments 560
Note 560
References 560
18 Environmental Noise Pollution 565
Sharad Gokhale
18.1 Introduction 565
18.2 Environmental Noise 565
18.3 Effects on Human Health and Environment 566
18.4 Sound Propagation in Environment 567
18.5 Characteristics of Sound 569
18.6 Relationship between Characteristics 570
18.7 Environmental Noise Levels 573
18.8 Measurement and Analysis of Ambient Noise 574
18.9 Environmental Noise Management 579
Note 580
References 581
19 Hazardous Waste Management 583
Clayton J. Clark II and Stephanie Luster-Teasley
19.1 Fundamentals 583
19.2 Legal Framework 585
19.3 Fate and Transport 591
19.4 Toxicology 593
19.5 Environmental Audits 594
19.6 General Overall Site Remediation Procedure 596
References 598
20 Waste Minimization and Reuse Technologies 599
Bora Cetin and Lin Li
20.1 Introduction 599
20.2 Type of Recycled Waste Materials 599
20.3 Recycling Applications of Fly Ash and Recycled Concrete Aggregates 601
20.4 Benefit of Recycling Materials Usage 621
20.5 Conclusions 621
References 623
21 Solid Waste Separation and Processing: Principles and Equipment 627
Georgios N. Anastassakis
21.1 Introduction 627
21.2 Size (or Volume) Reduction of Solid Waste 629
21.3 Size Separation 636
21.4 Manual-/Sensor-Based Sorting 638
21.5 Density (or Gravity) Separation 649
21.6 Magnetic/Electrostatic Separation 653
21.7 Ballistic Separation 660
21.8 Froth Flotation 661
21.9 Products Agglomeration (Cubing and Pelletizing) 661
21.10 Compaction (Baling) 663
21.11 Benefits and Prospects of Recycling 666
References 669
22 Waste Reduction in Metals Manufacturing 673
Carl C. Nesbitt
22.1 Wastes at the Mine Sites 674
22.2 Chemical Metallurgy Wastes 678
22.3 Conclusions 686
Reference 686
Further Reading 687
23 Waste Reduction and Pollution Prevention for the Chemicals Industry: Methodologies, Economics,and Multiscale Modeling Approaches 689
Cheng Seong Khor, Chandra Mouli R. Madhuranthakam, and Ali Elkamel
23.1 Introduction 689
23.2 Development of Pollution Prevention Programs 691
23.3 Economics of Pollution Prevention 698
23.4 Survey of Tools, Technologies, and Best Practices for Pollution Prevention 699
23.5 Concluding
Remarks 707
References 707
24 Industrial Waste Auditing 709
C. Visvanathan
24.1 Overview 709
24.2 Waste Minimization Programs 710
24.3 Waste Minimization Cycle 711
24.4 Waste Auditing 712
24.5 Phase I: Preparatory Works for Waste Audit 712
24.6 Phase II: Preassessment of Target Processes 717
24.7 Phase III: Assessment 719
24.8 Phase IV: Synthesis and Preliminary Analysis 722
24.9 Conclusion 724
Suggested Reading 729
Index 731
1
Environmental Systems Analysis
Adisa Azapagic
School of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
1.1 Introduction
Throughout history, engineers were always expected to provide innovative solutions to various societal challenges, and these expectations continue to the present day. However, nowadays, we are facing some unprecedented challenges, such as climate change, growing energy demand, resource scarcity, and inadequate access to food and water, to name but a few. With a fast-growing population, it is increasingly clear that the lifestyles of modern society cannot be sustained indefinitely. Growing scientific evidence shows that we are exceeding the Earth's capacity to provide many of the resources we use and to accommodate our emissions to the environment (IPCC, 2013; UNEP, 2012).
Engineers have a significant role to play in addressing these sustainability challenges by helping meet human needs through provision of technologies, products, and services that are economically viable, environmentally benign, and socially beneficial (Azapagic and Perdan, 2014). However, one of the challenges is determining what technologies, products, and services are sustainable and which metrics to use to ascertain that.
Environmental systems analysis (ESA) can be used for these purposes. ESA takes a systems approach to describe and evaluate the impacts of various human activities on the environment. A systems approach is essential for this as it enables consideration of the complex interrelationships among different elements of the system, recognizing that the behavior of the whole system is quite different from its individual elements when considered in isolation from each other. The "system" in this context can be a product, process, project, organization, or a whole country.
Many methods are used in ESA, including:
- Energy and exergy analysis
- Material and substance flow analysis (SFA)
- Environmental risk assessment (ERA)
- Environmental management systems (EMS)
- Environmental input-output analysis (EIOA)
- Life cycle assessment (LCA)
- Life cycle costing (LCC)
- Social life cycle assessment (S-LCA)
- Cost-benefit analysis (CBA).
These methods are discussed in the rest of this chapter.
1.2 Environmental Systems Analysis Methods
In addition to the methodologies that underpin them, ESA methods differ in many other respects, including the focus, scope, application, and sustainability aspects considered. This is summarized in Table 1.1 and discussed in the sections that follow.
Table 1.1 An overview of methods used in environmental systems analysis.
Method Focus Scope/system boundary Sustainability aspects Application Energy/exergy analysis Production processes, supply chains, regions, countries Production process, sectorial, regional, national Energy Process or project analysis, energy efficiency, identification of energy "hot spots" Material flow analysis Materials Regional, national, global Natural resources Environmental accounting, preservation of resources, policy Substance flow analysis Chemical substances Regional, national, global Environmental pollution Environmental accounting and protection, strategic management of chemicals, policy Environmental risk assessment Products, installations Product or installation, local, regional, national Environmental, health and safety Risk analysis, evaluation of risk mitigation measures, financial planning, regulation Environmental management systems Organizations Organization Environmental Environmental management Environmental input-output analysis Product groups, sectors, national economy Sectors, supply chains, national economy Environmental and economic Environmental accounting, policy Life cycle assessment Products, processes, services, activities Life cycle/supply chain Environmental Benchmarking, identification of opportunities for improvements, eco-design, policy Life cycle costing Products, processes, services, activities Life cycle/supply chain Economic Benchmarking, identification of opportunities for improvements Social life cycle assessment Products, processes, services, activities Life cycle/supply chain Social Benchmarking, identification of opportunities for improvements, policy Cost-benefit analysis Projects, activities Project, activity Socioeconomic and environmental Appraisal of costs and benefits of different projects or activities1.2.1 Energy and Exergy Analysis
Energy analysis is used to quantify the total amount of energy used by a system and to determine its efficiency. It can also be used to identify energy "hot spots" and opportunities for improvements. Exergy analysis goes a step further, and, instead of focusing on the quantity, it measures the quality of energy or the maximum amount of work that can be theoretically obtained from a system as it comes into equilibrium with its environment. Exergy analysis can be used to determine the efficiency of resource utilization and how it can be improved.
Although energy analysis has traditionally focused on production processes, it is also used in other applications, including energy analysis at the sectorial and national levels. However, the usefulness of exergy analysis is questionable for non-energy systems. Furthermore, many users find it difficult to estimate and interpret the meaning of exergy (Jeswani et al., 2010).
1.2.2 Material Flow Analysis
MFA enables systematic accounting of the flows and stocks of different materials over a certain time period in a certain region (Brunner and Rechberger, 2004). The term "materials" is defined quite broadly, spanning single chemical elements, compounds, and produced goods. Examples of materials often studied through MFA include aluminum, steel, copper, and uranium. MFA is based on the mass balance principle, derived from the law of mass conservation. This means that inputs and outputs of materials must be balanced, including any losses or stocks (i.e. accumulation).
As indicated in Figure 1.1, MFA can include the entire life cycle of a material, including its mining, production use, and waste management. In addition to the material flows, MFA also considers material stocks, making it suitable for analysis of resource scarcity. Material flows are typically tracked over a number of years enabling evaluation of long-term trends in the use of materials. MFA can also serve as a basis for quantifying the resource productivity of an economy, but it is not suitable for consideration of single production systems (Jeswani et al., 2010).
Figure 1.1 Material flow analysis tracks flows of materials through an economy from "cradle to grave." (M - flows of material under consideration).
An example of MFA applied to uranium in China is given in Figure 1.2. As can be seen, the annual flows and stocks of uranium, which is used as a fuel in nuclear power plants, are tracked within the country along the whole fuel life cycle. This includes extraction of the ore, conversion and enrichment of uranium, fuel fabrication, and electricity generation. Thus, MFA helps to quantify the total consumption of uranium over time and stocks of depleted uranium that could be used for fuel reprocessing. It can also help with the projections of future demand and estimates of how much uranium can be supplied from indigenous reserves and how much needs to be imported.
Figure 1.2 Material flow analysis of uranium flows and stocks in China in tonnes per year.
Source: Adapted from Yue et al. (2016).
1.2.3 Substance Flow Analysis
SFA is a specific type of MFA, focusing on chemical substances or compounds. The main aim of most SFA studies is to provide information for strategic management of chemical substances at a regional or national level (van der Voet, 2002). SFA can be also applied to track environmental pollution over time in a certain region. The latter is illustrated in Figure 1.3, which shows emissions of the pollutant of interest from different sources to air, water, and land in a defined region. However, the distinction between MFA and SFA is often blurred, and sometimes the two terms are used interchangeably.
Figure 1.3 Substance flow analysis tracks the flows of pollutants into, within and out of a region (S - flows of substance under consideration).
Source: Adapted from Azapagic et al. (2007).
