Biofuels

Name: Biofuels
Brand: Narendra Publishing House
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G. K. Kulkarni Dhanya(Author)

Narendra Publishing House

Published on 30. June 2017

336 pages

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978-93-89660-01-2 (ISBN)

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Intro
Contents
Preface
ACKNOWLEDGENMENT
1
INTRODUCTION TO BIOFUELS
1.1. BACKGROUND
1.2. BIOMASS AS RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
1.3. BIOFUELS
1.4. CURRENTLY AVAILABLE BIOFUELS
1.5. BIOFUELS CLASSIFICATION
1.5.1. First Generation Biofuel Technology
1.5.1.1. Bio-alcohols
1.5.1.2. Biodiesel
1.5.1.3. Biogas
1.5.1.4. Syngas or Biosyngas
1.5.1.5. Solid Biofuels
1.5.1.6. Biochar
1.5.1.7. The Pros and Cons of First Generation Biofuels
1.5.2. Second Generation Biofuel Technology
1.5.3. Third Generation Biofuel Technology
1.5.4. Fourth Generation Biofuel Technology
1.6. INDIA AND BIOFUELS
1.6.1. Biofuel Development in India - Important Milestones
1.7. OPPORTUNITY AND SCOPE OF BIOFUELS
1.8. NEED OF BIOFUELS SUSTAINABILITY
1.9. WORLD BIOFUEL SCENARIO AND FUTURE BIOFUEL TARGETS
1.10. BIOFUEL STANDARDS
1.11. CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
2
BIOFUELS SCENARIO AND POLICIES
2.1. BACKGROUND
2.2. POLICIES TO PROMOTE LIQUID BIOFUEL DEVELOPMENT
2.3. MANDATES AND TARGETS FOR TRANSPORT FUELS IN MAJOR COUNTRIES
2.4. THE GLOBAL BIOFUEL PRODUCTION
2.5. GLOBAL BIOFUEL PROMOTING POLICIES
2.5.1. Brazil's National Alcohol Program
2.5.2. The United States Ethanol Program
2.5.3. The EU Biofuels Policy
2.6 INDIA-ENERGY SCENARIO AND CHALLENGES
2.7. INDIA'S CRUDE OIL IMPORTS
2.8. INDIA'S POLICY INITIATIVES TO SUPPORT BIOFUELS DEVELOPMENT
2.8.1. Biofuel Mission of India
2.8.2. Ministries Involved in The Biofuels Sector
2.8.3. Initiatives in Biofuel Sector by Govt. of India
2.8.3.1. Bioethanol Promotion
2.8.3.2. Biodiesel Promotion
2.8.4. National Policy on Biofuels
2.8.4.1. Snapshot of India's National Policy on biofuels:
2.9. POLICIES FOR ADAPTATION OF BIOGAS TECHNOLOGY
2.9.1. RET
2.9.2. CDM
2.9.3. Other Policies Implemented by GoI
2.9.4. National Project on Biogas Development (NPBD)
2.9.5. Biogas Based Distributed/Grid Power Generation Program
2.9.6. National Biogas and Manure Management Program (NBMMP)
2.10. CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
3
BIOMASS AS ENERGY SOURCE
3.1. BACKGROUND
3.2. BIOMASS RESOURCES
3.3. GENERAL COMPOSITION OF BIOMASS
3.3.1. Cellulose
3.3.2. Hemicellulose
3.3.3. Lignin
3.4. BIOMASS CLASSIFICATION
3.4.1. Agriculture Residues
3.4.1.1. Availability of Agricultural Crops Residue
3.4.1.2. Components of Agricultural Crop Residues
3.4.2. Dedicated Energy Crops
3.4.3. Woody Plants and Residues
3.4.4. Municipal Solid Waste
3.4.4.1. Availability of Municipal Solid Waste
3.4.5. Industrial Wastes
3.4.6. Non-Edible Oilseeds Bearing Trees
3.4.7. Aquatic Biomass
3.5. Conversion Technology For Bioenergy Production From Biomass Resources
3.5.1. Thermo-Chemical Processes
3.5.1.1. Direct Combustion
3.5.1.2. Gasification
3.3.I.3. Pyrolysis
3.5.2. Chemical Process
Transesterification
3.5.3. Biochemical Process
3.5.3.1. Anaerobic Digestion
3.5.3.2. Fermentation
3.6. NATIONAL PROGRAMMES TO PROMOTE BIOMASS ENERGY PRODUCTION
3.7. CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
4
BIOMASS PRETREATMENT AND SACCHARIFICATION
4.1. BACKGROUND
4.2. OVERVIEW OF BIOMASS COMPOSITION AND HYDROLYSIS
4.3. FACTORS LIMITING THE ENZYMATIC HYDROLYSIS
4.4. PRETREATMENT PROCESS FOR LIGNOCELLULOSIC MATERIAL
4.5. PRETREATMENT METHODS
4.5.1. Physical Pretreatment
4.5.1.1. Liquid Hot-Water Pretreatment
4.5.1.2. Steam Explosion
4.5.1.3. Microwave Irradiation
4.5.2. Chemical Pretreatment
4.5.2.1. Acid Hydrolysis
4.5.2.2. Alkali Hydrolysis
4.5.2.3. Ammonia Explosion
4.5.2.4. CO2 Explosion
4.5.2.5. Application of Oxidizing Compounds
4.5.2.6. Organosolv Pretreatment
4.5.2.7. Ozonolysis Pretreatment
4.5.2.8. Microwave Assisted Acid and Alkali Pretreatment
4.5.3. Inhibitors Production During Aqueous Pretreatment
4.5.4. Biological Pretreatment
4.6. ENZYMATIC HYDROLYSIS
The Enzymatic Digestibility Profile
4.6.1. The Factors That Affect The Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Cellulose
4.7. ADVANCES IN ENZYMATIC HYDROLYSIS AND BIOFUEL PRODUCTION
4.7.1. Genetic Manipulation of Feedstock Crops
4.7.2. Production of Hydrolysis Enzymes in Plants
4.7.3. Increasing Cell wall Polysaccharide Content
4.7.4. Increasing The Overall Biomass
4.7.5. Decreasing The Need For Pretreatment
4.7.6. Substrate-Disrupting Factors
4.7.7. Modifying Features of Cellulose
4.8. CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
5
ETHANOL PRODUCTION
5.1. BRIEF HISTORY OF ETHANOL AND ETHANOL-GASOLINE BLENDS
5.2. ETHANOL AS TRANSPORTATION AND FUEL ADDITIVES
5.3. FEED STOCKS AND PROCESSES OF ETHANOL PRODUCTION
5.3.1. Starchy Materials
5.3.2. Lignocellulosics
5.4. MICRO-ORGANISMS FOR ETHANOL PRODUCTION
5.4.1. Yeasts
5.4.2. Bacteria
5.4.3. Filamentous Fungi
5.5. METABOLIC PATHWAY OF ETHANOL PRODUCTION
5.5.1. Metabolic Pathway of Ethanol Production by Saccharomyces Cerevisiae
5.5.2. Metabolic Pathway of Ethanol Production by Zymomonas Mobilis
5.6. FACTORS AFFECTING THE ETHANOL PRODUCTION
5.6.1. Temperature
5.6.2. pH
5.6.3. Aeration
5.6.4. Ethanol Tolerance
5.6.5. Sugar Concentration
5.6.6. Nutrients
5.6.7. Inoculum
5.6.8. Inhibitors
5.7. MODES OF OPERATION OF ETHANOL FERMENTATION PROCESS
5.7.1. Batch Fermentation
5.7.2. Continuous Culture
5.7.3. Fed-batch Process
5.7.4. Semi-continuous Processes
5.8. PROCESS INTEGRATION
5.8.1. Separate Hydrolysis and Fermentation
5.8.2. Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation
5.8.3. Simultaneous Saccharification and Co-Fermentation
5.8.4. Consolidated Bio-Processing (CBP)
5.9. ETHANOL FROM MOLASSES AND AGRI-RESOURCES
5.10. Economics of Ethanol Production from Lignocellulosics
5.11. IMPROVEMENT IN FERMENTATION TECHNOLOGY
5.11.1. Microbial Fermentations with Immobilized Cells
5.11.2. Genetic Engineering for Improvement in Microorganisms for Ethanol Production
REFERENCES
6 BIODIESEL PRODUCTION
6.1. BACKGROUND
6.2. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF BIODIESEL AS A FUEL
6.3. PETROLEUM DIESEL VS. BIODIESEL FUEL BLENDS
6.4. ADVANTAGES OF BIODIESEL
6.5. BIODIESEL PRODUCTION AND CURRENT STATUS OF THE WORLD
6.6. INDIA'S ENERGY DEMAND, BIODIESEL PRODUCTION AND CURRENT STATUS
6.7. RAW MATERIALS FOR BIODIESEL PRODUCTION
6.7.1. Global Production and Net Trade for Selected Oilseeds
6.7.2. Oil Content in Various Edible Oilseeds Crops
6.7.3. Production and Consumption of Edible Oil in India
6.7.4. Biodiesel Production From Major TBO(s) and Non-Edible Oil Sources
6.7.4.1. Ratan Jyot (Jatropha Curcas)
6.7.4.2. Pongamia (Pongamia pinnata)
6.7.4.3. Neem (Azadirachta indica)
6.7.4.4. Soapnut (Sapindus mukorossi)
6.7.4.5. Kusum (Schleichera oleosa)
6.7.4.6. Kokum (Garcinia indica)
6.7.4.7. Cheura (Diploknema butyracea)
6.7.4.8. Tung (Aleurites fordii)
6.7.5. Oil Seeds From Natural Forests and Existing Plantations
6.7.5.1. Sal (Shorea robusta)
6.7.5.2. Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis)
6.7.6. Waste Cooking Oil (WCO)
6.7.7. Biodiesel From Microalgae
6.8. MAJOR COMPONENTS OF PLANT OIL AND LIPIDS
6.9. BIODIESEL PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES
6.9.1. Pyrolysis
6.9.2. Micro-Emulsification
6.9.3. Transesterification
6.9.3.1. Base Catalyst Transesterification
6.9.3.2. Acid Catalyst Transesterification
6.9.4. Supercritical & Subcritical Alcohol Transesterification
6.9.5. Enzymatic Production of Biodiesel
6.9.6. Comparison of The Different Technologies in Biodiesel Production
6.9.7. Factors Affecting The Transesterification Reaction
6.9.7.1. Molar Ratio of Alcohol to Oil
6.9.7.2. Temperature and Reaction Time
6.9.7.3. Agitation Speed and Mixing Condition
6.9.7.4. Free Fatty Acid and Moisture
6.9.7.5. Types and Amount of Catalyst
6.10. CONSTRAINTS IN BIODIESEL PRODUCTION
6.10.1. High Feedstock Cost
6.10.2. Shifting Food to Fuel
6.10.3. Technical Constraints
6.10.4. Gum Formation
6.11. CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
7
BIOFUELS FROM ALGAL BIOMASS
7.1. BACKGROUND
7.2. MICROALGAE AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION
7.3. MICROALGAE PRODUCTION
7.3.1. Photoautotrophic Production
7.3.1.1. Open Pond Production Systems
7.3.1.2. Closed Photobioreactor Systems
7.3.1.3. Hybrid production systems
7.3.2. Heterotrophic Production
7.3.3. Mixotrophic Production
7.4. FACTORS AFFECTING THE ALGAL GROWTH
7.5. HARVESTING AND RECOVERY OF MICROALGAL BIOMASS
7.5.1. Harvesting and Dewatering Methods
7.5.2. Drying of Microalgal Biomass
7.6. EXTRACTION OF FEEDSTOCKS FOR BIOFUEL PRODUCTION
7.6.1. Oil Extraction for Biodiesel
7.6.2. Extraction of Fermentable Sugar for Bioethanol or Biobutanol Production
7.7. CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES FOR ALGAL BIOFUELS
7.7.1. Biochemical Conversion Technologies
7.7.1.1. Algal Biomass-To-Biodiesel
7.7.1.2. Bioethanol Fermentation
7.7.1.3. Biobutanol Production From Algal Biomass
7.7.1.4. Algal Biohydrogen Production
7.7.1.5. Algal Biogas Production by Anaerobic Digestion
7.7.2. Thermochemical Conversion
7.7.2.1. Gasification
7.7.2.2. Thermochemical Liquefaction
7.7.2.3. Pyrolysis
7.7.2.4. Direct Combustion
7.8. ECONOMICS
7.9. THE ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATION OF ALGAL BIOFUELS PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY
7.9.1. The Advantages of Microalgae Biomass for Biofuels Production
7.9.2. Limitations of Algal Biodiesel Production Technology
7.10. CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
8
BIOHYDROGEN
8.1. INTRODUCTION
8.2. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF HYDROGEN AS A FUEL
8.3. CURRENT STATUS OF HYDROGEN PRODUCTION
8.4. HYDROGEN PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES
8.4.1. Hydrogen Produced Via Steam Methane Reforming (SMR)
8.4.2. Hydrogen Production from Biomass
8.5. HYDROGEN PRODUCTION ROUTES FROM BIOMASS
8.5.1. Thermochemical Hydrogen Production from Biomass
8.5.1.1. Combustion
8.5.1.2. Direct Liquefaction
8.5.1.3. Hydrogen from Biomass Pyrolysis
8.5.1.4. Hydrogen from Biomass Gasification
8.5.2. Biological Hydrogen Production
8.5.2.1. Biophotolysis
8.5.2.2. Direct Biophotolysis
8.5.2.3. Indirect Biophotolysis
8.5.2.4. Photo-Fermentation
8.5.2.5. Dark-Fermentation
8.5.2.6. Hybrid Reactor System or Two-Stage Process
8.5.2.7. Bio-Catalyzed Electrolysis
8.6. USE OF HYDROGEN ENERGY AND FUEL CELL TECHNOLOGIES
8.6.1. Fuel Cell
8.6.2. Principle of Fuel Cell Operation
8.6.3. Types of Fuel Cells
8.6.4. The Advantages of Fuel Cells
8.6.5. Application of Fuel Cells
8.6.6. Fuel-Cell R.D in India
8.7. PROS AND CONSTRAINTS IN HYDROGEN ENERGY
8.8. COST OF HYDROGEN PRODUCTION
8.9. CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
9
BIOGAS TECHNOLOGY
9.1. INTRODUCTION
9.2. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
9.3. BIOGAS POTENTIAL OF INDIA
9.4. FEEDSTOCK FOR BIOGAS PRODUCTION
9.5. COMPOSITION OF BIOGAS
9.6. ENERGY CONTENT OF BIOGAS COMPARED TO OTHER FUELS
9.7. REMOVAL OF IMPURITIES
9.8. BIOGAS PRODUCTION PROCESS
9.8.1. Hydrolysis
9.8.2. Acidogenesis or Acid Production
9.8.3. Acetogenesis or Acetic Acid Production
9.8.4. Methanogenesis or Methane Production
9.9. PARAMETERS AFFECTING CH4 FORMATION
9.9.1. Environmental Factors
9.9.1.1. pH
9.9.1.2. Temperature
9.9.1.3. Nutrient Availability
9.9.1.4. Toxic Materials
9.9.2. Operational Factors
9.9.2.1. Substrate Composition
9.9.2.2. Particle Size of the Feedstock
9.9.2.3. C: N Ratio
9.9.2.4. Retention Time - Loading Rate - Solid Concentration
9.9.2.5. Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT)
9.9.2.6. Organic Loading Rate
9.9.2.7. Solid Concentration
9.9.2.8. Seeding of Biogas Plant
9.9.2.9. Agitation
9.10. BIOGAS PLANT DESIGNS
9.10.1. Components of Biogas Plants
9.10.2. Approved Models of Biogas Plants in India
9.10.2.1. Fixed-dome Type
9.10.2.2. Floating Drum Type
9.10.2.3. Bag-type Biogas Plant (Flexi Type)
9.11. BENEFITS OF BIOGAS TECHNOLOGY
9.11.1. Usage of the Biogas
9.11.2. Use of Digested Biogas Slurry as a Fertilizer
9.11.3. Environmental Benefits
9.11.4. Other Benefits
9.12. CONSTRAINTS TO EFFICIENT WORKING OF BIOGAS GENERATING SYSTEMS
9.12.1. Technical Constraints
9.12.2. Financial Constraints
9.12.3. Social Constraints
9.12.4. Environmental Constraints
9.13. TECHNIQUES FOR ENHANCING BIOGAS PRODUCTION
9.13.1. Use of Additives
9.13.2. Recycling of Digested Slurry/slurry Filtrate
9.13.3. Variation in Operational Parameters
9.13.4. Innovations in Digester Designs
9.14. CDM TO BIOGAS TECHNOLOGY
9.15. CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
10
BIOFUELS AND ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS
10.1. BACKGROUND
10.2. PROPERTIES AND COMBUSTION PROFILE OF BIOFUELS
10.2.1. Properties and Combustion Profile of Ethanol
10.2.2. Properties and Combustion Profile of Biodiesel
10.2.3. Properties and Combustion Profile of Biogas
10.3. EMISSION LIMITS AND STANDARD
10.3.1. Standards for Biodiesel
10.4. BIOFUELS FOR EMISSION REDUCTION AND AIR QUALITY
10.4.1. Exhaust Emission Reduction by Ethanol
10.4.2. Exhaust Emission Reduction by Biodiesel
10.4.3. Atmospheric Pollution Reduction by Biogas
10.5. EFFECT OF BIOFUELS ON HEALTH
10.5.1. Bioethanol and Human Health
10.5.2. Biodiesel and Human Health
10.5.3. Biogas and Health Benefits
10.6. ADDITIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS FROM BIOFUEL
10.6.1. Energy Balances
10.6.2. Waste Reduction
10.6.3. Biodegradability and Toxicity
10.6.4. Reduction in Global Warming
10.7. FURTHER SCOPE OF BIOFUELS ON ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS
10.8. CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
11
BIOFUELS AND FOOD SECURITY
11.1. BACKGROUND
11.2. GLOBAL ENERGY AND FOOD SECURITY CONCERN
11.2.1. Food Security
11.2.2. Energy Consumption and Soaring prices of Crude Oils
11.3. BIOFUEL FOR ENERGY SECURITY
11.3.1. Food Shortage and Soaring Prices of Food Grains
11.4. PRODUCTIVITY AND AVAILABILITY OF FOOD GRAINS IN INDIA
11.5. GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES FOR FOOD SECURITY
11.6. ENERGY SECURITY
11.6.1. India's Energy Security
11.6.2. Current Status of Biofuel Production in India
11.6.3. Potential Feedstocks for Biofuel Production
11.6.3.1. Crop Residues as Feedstock for Biofuel
11.6.3.2. 'Smart' Biofuel Crops Ensure Food and Environmental Security
11.6.3.3. Biofuel from Non-Edible Oils
11.6.3.4. Algal Biofuel
11.7. CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
12
CLIMATE CHANGE AND BIOFUELS
12.1. BACKGROUND
12.2. CONTRIBUTION OF VARIOUS CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES TO CLIMATE CHANGE
12.2.1. Fossil Fuel Consumption and Climate Change
12.2.2. Biomass Burning and Deforestation to Climate Change
12.2.3. Biomass Decay and Climate Change
12.3. ADAPTATION AND MITIGATION OPTIONS FOR CLIMATE CHANGE
12.3.1. Role of Biofuels in Climate Change
12.3.1.1. Bioethanol and Biodiesel for Climate Change Mitigation
12.3.1.2. Biogas as Biofuel in Methane Management and Climate Change Mitigation
12.3.1.3. Emission Reduction by Carbon-free Biofuels
12.3.2. Carbon Mitigation by Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
12.3.3. Ways to Sequester Carbon
12.3.3.1. Sequestering Carbon in Terrestrial Biomass
12.3.3.2. Sequestering Carbon in Algal Biomass
12.4. CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
13
BIOFUELS FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
13.1. BACKGROUND
13.2. NEED OF BIOFUELS FOR SUSTAINABILITY
13.2.1. Energy Supply
13.2.2. Climate Change
13.2.3. Economic Development
13.3. SUSTAINABLE BIOFUELS CRITERIA
13.4. CELLULOSIC MATERIALS AS A SUSTAINABLE BIOFUEL SOURCE
13.5. BIOFUEL POLICIES AND SUSTAINABILITY
13.6. SUSTAINABILITY IN ENERGY SECURITY WITH CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION
13.7. SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY
13.8. JOB CREATION AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT
13.9. IMPROVED TRADE BALANCE
13.10. THE CARBON CYCLE AND BIOFUELS
13.11. ESTABLISHMENT OF NEW INDUSTRIES
13.12. CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
GLOSSARY
ACRONYMS
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
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