PVC Handbook

Name: PVC Handbook
Brand: Hanser Publications
Price: 449.99 EUR
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Richard P. Krock Michael Schiller Peter Frenkel James W. Summers Charles A. Daniels(Editor)

Hanser Publications (Publisher)

2nd Edition

Published on 8. September 2025

950 pages

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978-1-56990-367-4 (ISBN)

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Persons

Editor

Richard P. Krock

Richard P. Krock is founder and Principal of VyChlor Advisors, LLC, Westlake, OH, advising the chlor-vinyl and plastics recycling industries on critical regulatory requirements and sustainability aspects. He was previously, until 2021, Senior Vice President, Regulatory and Technical Affairs at the Vinyl Institute, Washington, D.C.

Michael Schiller

Dr. Michael Schiller is founder and owner of HMS Concept e.U., a consultancy company for chemical, environmental, and plastic technology in Arnoldstein/Austria. He was previously head of the Innovation and Sustainability Center at Akdeniz Kimya and Managing Director of Akdeniz Kimya, Austria. Before that, he was R&D Manager and Head of Group R&D at Chemson AG, and has worked in the PVC industry since 1992. He is a well-known author, editor, and lecturer in the field of PVC and its additives, and is co-volume editor of the Plastics Additives Handbook, 6th edition.
ISNI: 0000 0000 7869 8470

Peter Frenkel

Peter Frenkel, Ph.D., is Vice President of Technology at Galata Chemicals, Danbury, CT, where his focus includes development of new PVC heat stabilizers, plasticizers, and bio-based polymer additives, as well as business development. He has extensive industry experience in plastics additives and bio-based and renewable materials.

James W. Summers

Dr. James Summers was co-editor or and a major contributor to the 1st edition of the PVC Handbook published in 2005, a capstone project led by him. Through his work at BFGoodrich, The Geon Company, PolyOne Corporation, and P3 Consulting, and his devoted participation in the Society of Plastics Engineers, Dr. Summers' legacy stands as a respected technical educator for thousands of individuals involved with polymerizing PVC resins, formulating and compounding PVC materials, processing PVC into finished parts, and designing PVC products to perform at their best for their entire useful life.

Charles A. Daniels

Dr. Charles Daniels is currently the President of Materials Performance Consulting LLC. He has been called upon to consult in plastics performance programs, and to contribute as an expert witness in a number of legal cases involving patents and polymer failure analyses.

Content

Intro
Contents
Preface
The Authors
The Editors
The Contributors
1 Introduction
Peter Frenkel, Richard Krock, Michael Schiller
2 Vinyl Chloride Monomer
Joseph A. Cowfer, Arjen Sevenster, Richard Krock
2.1 Overview
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Physical Properties
2.4 Reactions
2.4.1 Polymerization
2.4.2 Substitution at the Carbon-Chlorine Bond
2.4.3 Oxidation
2.4.4 Addition
2.4.5 Photochemistry
2.4.6 Pyrolysis
2.5 Manufacture
2.5.1 Direct Chlorination of Ethylene
2.5.2 Oxychlorination of Ethylene
2.6 Purification of Ethylene Dichloride for Pyrolysis
2.7 Ethylene Dichloride Pyrolysis to Vinyl Chloride
2.8 By-Product Disposal
2.9 Economic Aspects
2.10 Health and Environmental Considerations
2.11 Technology Trends
2.12 Specifications
2.13 Health and Safety Factors
2.14 Uses
3 Polymerization
Donald E. Witenhafer, David J. Poledna, Peter Frenkel, Allan Matyger, Allen Bodron
3.1 Organic Peroxide Initiators for PVC Polymerization
3.1.1 Polymerization with the Use of Organic Peroxides
3.1.2 Safety Considerations
3.1.3 Main Characteristics for Selecting Organic Peroxides
3.1.4 Commercially Available Organic Peroxide Initiators for PVC Polymerization
3.1.5 Emulsified Organic Peroxide Initiators for PVC Polymerization
3.1.6 Selecting Organic Peroxide Initiators for PVC Polymerization
3.1.7 Modifying the Reactivity of Organic Peroxide Initiators
3.2 PVC Polymerization: Basic Considerations
3.3 Suspension Process Overview
3.3.1 Polymerization
3.3.2 Stripping
3.3.3 Centrifugation
3.3.4 Drying and Screening
3.4 Mass Process Overview
3.5 Special Considerations
3.5.1 Polymerization Kinetics
3.5.2 Resin Particle Structure and Formation
3.5.3 Agitation and Dispersants
3.5.4 Vinyl Chloride Recovery
3.5.5 Increasing Reactor Productivity
3.5.6 Chain Defects and Heat Stability
3.5.7 Molecular Weight Extension
3.5.8 Copolymerization
3.6 Summary
3.7 Microsuspension and Emulsion Polymerization
3.7.1 Microsuspension Polymerization of Vinyl Chloride Compared with Emulsion and Suspension Polymerization
3.7.2 Procedure and Variations
3.7.3 Emulsion Polymerization of Vinyl Chloride Compared with Microsuspension and Suspension PVC Polymerization
3.8 Procedure for Batch Polymerization
3.9 Other Considerations for Microsuspension and Emulsion Polymerization of PVC
3.9.1 Surfactant System
3.9.2 Initiation of Polymerization
3.9.3 Water
3.9.4 Copolymers
3.10 Primary Particle Size Microsuspension
3.10.1 Primary Particle Size Emulsion
3.11 Molecular Weight
3.12 Polymerization Equipment Operation
3.12.1 Homogenizers
3.12.2 Reaction Vessels
3.12.3 Agitation
3.12.4 Heat Removal
3.13 Downstream Equipment
3.13.1 Residual Vinyl Chloride Removal (Stripping)
3.13.2 Concentrating
3.13.3 Drying
3.13.4 Grinding
3.13.5 Packaging
3.14 Product Quality
3.15 Safety and Environment
4 Stabilizers and Lubricants for PVC and CPVC
Gianluca Sarti, Peter Frenkel, Yashodhan Kanade, Michael Schiller
4.1 Introduction
4.2 PVC Degradation, Decomposition and Stabilization
4.2.1 PVC Thermal Degradation
4.2.2 PVC Thermal Decomposition
4.2.2.1 Introduction
4.2.2.2 The First Stage of Thermal Decomposition
4.2.2.3 The Second Stage of Thermal Decomposition
4.2.3 General Stabilization of PVC
4.3 Calcium Organic Stabilizers (COSs)
4.3.1 Introduction
4.3.2 Calcium Zinc Stabilizers (CZSs)
4.3.3 Organic Stabilizers
4.3.4 Application Areas of COSs
4.3.5 Liquid Mixed Metal Stabilizers (LMMSs)
4.4 Organotin Stabilizers
4.4.1 Chemical Groups and General Characteristics
4.4.2 History of Organotin Stabilizers [122]
4.4.3 Alkyltin Carboxylates
4.4.4 Alkyltin Mercaptoacid Esters
4.4.5 Alkyltin Mercaptoalcohol Esters
4.4.6 Alkyltin Mercaptides
4.4.7 Dialkyltin Cyclo-Mercaptocarboxylates
4.4.8 Estertins
4.4.9 Additional Components Used in Combination with Alkyltin Heat Stabilizers
4.4.10 Lubrication of Organotin Stabilizers [122]
4.4.11 Hazard Classification of Dialkyltin Bis(2-ethylhexyl Thioglycolates)
4.4.12 Stabilizing PVC with Alkyltin (2-Ethylhexyl Thioglycolates) and the Universal Mechanism of PVC Stabilization
4.5 Lead Stabilizers
4.6 Rare-Earth Stabilizers [163]
4.7 Lubricants for PVC
4.7.1 Introduction
4.7.2 Nature of Lubricants
4.7.2.1 Partially Soluble Lubricant Structure
4.7.2.2 Effect of Molecular Structure on Lubricant Performance [168]
4.7.3 Classification of Lubricants
4.7.3.1 External and Internal Lubricants
4.7.3.2 Various Aspects of Lubricants
4.7.3.3 Classification on the Basis of Saturation Aspect
4.7.3.4 Classification on the Basis of Interaction Parameter (IP)
4.7.3.5 Classification on the Basis of the Hildebrand Solubility Parameter (HSP)
4.7.3.6 Lacuna in the Traditional Classification of Lubricants
4.7.3.7 Modern Classification of Lubricants on the Basis of Polarity [176]
4.7.4 Interaction of Lubricants with PVC during Processing
4.7.4.1 Particulate Structure of PVC from the Perspective of Lubricants
4.7.4.2 Mechanism of Fusion and the Lubricant's Role
4.7.4.3 Mechanism of Film-Former Type of Lubricants [176]
4.7.5 How Non-polar Lubricants Function
4.7.6 How Polar Lubricants Function
4.7.7 Pseudo-Plasticizing Effect of Polar Lubricants
4.7.8 Combination of All Types of Lubricants
4.7.9 Various Lubricants
4.7.9.1 Natural and Synthetic Waxes
4.7.9.2 Metal Soaps
4.7.9.3 Fatty Acids, Alcohols, Esters and Complex Esters
4.7.10 Aspects of Lubricants Related to PVC Processing
4.7.10.1 Role of Lubricants at the Primary Particle Surface
4.7.10.2 Effect of Balance of Polar and Non-Polar Lubricants on Processing
4.7.10.3 Lubricants in Plasticized Applications
4.7.10.4 Effect of Over- and Under-Lubrication on Processing
4.7.10.5 Plateout
4.7.10.6 Haze and Transparency
4.7.10.7 Impact Properties
4.7.11 Selection and Testing of Lubricants
4.7.11.1 Relationship of PVC's K-Value and the Lubricant Level
4.7.11.2 Using a Torque Rheometer to Fine-Tune the Level of Lubricant
4.8 Intermediate Lubricants
4.8.1 Antistatic Agents
4.8.2 Antifogging Agents
4.9 CPVC Stabilizers and Lubricants
4.9.1 Mechanism of CPVC Thermal Decomposition
4.9.2 Differences in Processing of PVC and CPVC
4.9.3 Heat Stabilizers for CPVC
4.9.4 Mechanism of CPVC Stabilization
4.10 Quality Control of Stabilizers [197]
5 Plasticizers
Peter Frenkel, Michael Schiller, Patrick Harmon
5.1 Preface
5.2 Historical Developments
5.3 Mechanisms of Plasticization
5.4 Types of Plasticizers
5.4.1 Traditional Plasticizers: Classification
5.4.2 Primary Bio-Based Plasticizers
5.4.3 Selected Types of Primary Bio-based Plasticizers
5.4.3.1 Citrates
5.4.3.2 Dicarboxylic Acid Esters
5.4.3.3 Acetylated Fatty Acid Esters
5.4.3.4 Isosorbide Diesters
5.4.3.5 Epoxidized Fatty Acid Esters
5.4.3.6 Other Bio-Based Plasticizers
5.5 Plasticizer Performance Attributes
5.6 Plasticizer Efficiency
5.7 Low-Temperature Performance Characteristics
5.8 Permanence (Transience) of Plasticizers
5.9 Miscibility (Compatibility)
5.10 Processability
5.11 Future of Plasticizers
5.12 Health, Safety and Environmental Aspects of Plasticizers
5.12.1 Hazards and Risks
5.12.1.1 Carcinogenicity
5.12.1.2 Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity
5.12.2 Environmental Fate and Toxicity
5.12.3 Human Biomonitoring and Exposure Assessment
5.12.4 Recent Epidemiological Studies
5.12.5 Toxicology, Environmental Fate and Exposure to Other Plasticizers
5.13 Regulatory Impacts on Plasticizers - Current Topics
5.13.1 U.S. EPA and TSCA
5.13.2 California Proposition 65 and ortho-Phthalates
5.13.3 U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) and ortho-Phthalates
5.13.4 REACH, Classification and Labeling, Substances of Very High Concern (SVHC)
5.13.5 Regulated Applications of Plasticizers
5.13.5.1 Food-Contact (FDA and EFSA/EU) Applications
5.13.5.2 Medical Applications of Plasticizers in the U.S. and EU-27
6 Processing Aids and Impact Modifiers
Michael Schiller
6.1 Processing Aids/Flow Modifiers
6.1.1 Introduction
6.1.2 History
6.1.3 Role of Processing Aids in PVC
6.1.3.1 Promotion of Homogeneous Melt
6.1.3.2 Melt Homogeneity
6.1.3.3 Melt Strength, Extensibility and Elasticity
6.1.4 Benefits of Processing Aids in PVC
6.1.4.1 Extrusion [19]
6.1.4.2 Foam Extrusion
6.1.4.3 Calendering/Thermoforming [22]
6.1.4.4 Injection Molding [23]
6.1.4.5 Blow Molding [24]
6.2 Impact Modifiers
6.2.1 Introduction
6.2.2 Impact Modification Theory [27]
6.2.3 Influence of Degree of Gelation/Fusion [62]
6.2.4 Impact Modifiers - Functions, Features and Types
6.2.4.1 Predefined Particle Size Modifiers [68]
6.2.4.2 Modifiers with Network Structure [68]
6.2.4.3 Inorganic Impact Modifiers [68]
6.2.5 Impact Modifiers Selection
6.2.6 Mathematical Modeling of the Dependency of Impact Strength on the Dosage of Impact Modifier
6.2.7 Impact and Toughness Testing
6.2.7.1 Charpy and Izod Impact Test [98]
6.2.7.2 Falling-Weight Tests [98]
6.2.7.3 Bottle-Drop Impact Tests [102]
6.2.7.4 Tensile Impact [102]
6.2.7.5 Fracture Toughness [102]
7 Functional Fillers, Mineral Additives and Reinforcing Agents in PVC
Jürgen W. Leonhardt, Michael Knerr
7.1 Introduction
7.1.1 Definitions
7.1.2 Functional Fillers and Their Applications
7.2 Properties of Fillers
7.2.1 Form Factor
7.2.2 Particle Size Distribution (PSD)
7.2.2.1 Average Particle Diameter (D50%)
7.2.2.2 Top Cut
7.2.2.3 The Specific Surface Area as a Measure of the Fines Content (BET)
7.2.3 Surface Energy
7.2.4 Further Properties of Functional Fillers
7.3 Properties of Filled Plastics
7.3.1 Influence of the Shape Factor
7.3.1.1 Spherical or Cubic Aggregates
7.3.1.2 Platelet and Fibrous Fillers
7.3.2 Influence of the Particle Size Distribution
7.3.2.1 Influence of the Top Cut
7.3.3 Effect of Surface Treatment
7.3.4 Color
7.3.5 Density and Relative Density/Specific Gravity
7.3.6 Further Properties of Modified Plastics
7.4 Application Criteria for Functional Fillers and Reinforcing Agents in Thermoplastics
7.5 Description of the Individual Functional Fillers
7.5.1 Round and Cubic Particles
7.5.1.1 Natural Calcium Carbonates
7.5.1.2 Synthetic, Precipitated Calcium Carbonates
7.5.1.3 Dolomite
7.5.1.4 Calcium Sulfates
7.5.1.5 Barium Sulfate (Barite)
7.5.1.6 Glass Beads
7.5.1.7 Synthetic Silica
7.5.1.8 Natural Silica
7.5.1.9 Silicate Beads
7.5.1.10 Feldspar and Nepheline Syenite
7.5.1.11 Industrial Carbon Black
7.5.1.12 Wood Flour
7.5.1.13 Metals and Metal Oxides
7.5.2 Platelet-Like Particles
7.5.2.1 Talc Powder
7.5.2.2 Kaolin
7.5.2.3 Mica
7.5.2.4 Graphite
7.5.2.5 Aluminum Hydroxide and Magnesium Hydroxide
7.5.3 Acicular and Fibrous Particles
7.5.3.1 Wollastonite
7.5.3.2 Whiskers
7.5.3.3 Asbestos
7.5.3.4 Glass Fibers
7.6 Adhesion Promoters/Coupling Agents
7.7 Processing of Plastics Containing Functional fillers and Reinforced Plastics
7.7.1 Rigid PVC (u-PVC) Profile Extrusion
7.7.2 Pipe Extrusion
7.7.3 Cable Extrusion
7.7.4 Wood Flour Processing
7.7.5 Blow Molding
7.7.6 Blown and Flat Films
7.7.7 Sheets and Deep-drawn Molded Parts
7.7.8 Injection Molded Articles
7.7.9 Plastisol Applications
7.7.10 Recycling
7.8 Outlook and Technological Trends
8 PVC Blends and Alloys
Donald E. Witenhafer, Saleem Shakir
8.1 Introduction
8.2 High Heat Deflection Temperature of PVC Blends
8.2.1 Glutarimide Copolymers
8.2.2 ABS, AMSAN Blends
8.2.3 Suprel Alloy Example
8.2.4 Styrene/Maleic Anhydride (SMA) Copolymer Blends
8.2.5 PVC and CPVC Blends
8.3 Flexible PVC Blends
8.3.1 Butadiene Acrylonitrile Copolymer Blends
8.3.2 Polyketone Blends
8.4 Compatibilizers
8.5 Summary
9 Compounding Processes
Rabeh Elleithy, James W. Summers, Ralph J. Purtell, Nicolas Gehring
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Powder Mixing in PVC
9.2.1 Hot or High-Speed Mixer
9.2.1.1 Vortex
9.2.1.2 Influencing the Vortex
9.2.2 Cold or Cooling Mixer
9.2.2.1 Vertical Cooling Mixers
9.2.2.2 Horizontal Cooling Mixers
9.2.2.3 Double Batching
9.2.3 Heating Cooling Mixer Cycle
9.2.4 PVC Mixing without Cooling Mixer
9.3 Vinyl Chloride Monomer Emissions, De-Dusting and Dehumidifying
9.3.1 Vinyl Chloride Monomer (VCM) Emissions
9.3.2 De-Dusting
9.3.3 Dehumidifying
9.4 Liquid Addition
9.4.1 Plasticizer Addition [12]
9.4.2 Types of Injection
9.5 Solutions to the Agglomeration Problems in High Speed Mixing [16]
9.6 Mixing Troubleshooting
9.7 Plastisol Mixing
9.8 Powder to Product by Twin Screw Extrusion
9.9 Powder to Compound with an Internal Batch Mixer (Banbury) and Mill
9.10 Powder to Compound with an Internal Batch Continuous Mixer and Mill
9.11 Powder to Compound by Single Screw Compounding
9.12 Powder to Compound by Reciprocating Single Screw Compounding
9.13 Powder to Compound by Twin Screw Compounding
9.14 Powder to Compound by Planetary Screw Extruders
9.15 Summary
10 Flexible PVC
William Coaker, Ralph J. Purtell, Walter Fischer
10.1 Origins
10.2 Raw Materials for Flexible PVC Applications
10.2.1 The Resin
10.2.1.1 Suspension PVC
10.2.1.2 Dispersion PVC
10.3 Particulate Architecture of PVC Resins Used in Flexible Products
10.4 Favored Processing Methods for Flexible PVC
10.5 Designing Flexible PVC Compounds
10.5.1 Formulation Development
10.5.2 General Problems in Formulation Development
10.5.3 Properties Often Specified for Semi-Rigid and Flexible PVC Products
10.6 Additives Used in Flexible PVC Compounds
10.6.1 Liquid Plasticizers and Solid Plasticizers
10.6.2 Stabilizers
10.6.3 Fillers
10.6.4 Lubricants
10.6.5 Light Stabilizers
10.6.6 Flame Retardants and Smoke Suppressants
10.6.7 Other Additives
10.7 Markets for Flexible and Semi-Rigid PVC
10.7.1 Cable Insulation and Jacketing/Sheathing
10.7.1.1 U.S. Market
10.7.1.2 European Market
10.7.2 Calendered and Extruded Products
10.7.3 Supported PVC Films and Sheets
10.7.4 Wall Coverings
10.7.5 Floorings and Floor Tiles
10.7.6 Solid and Foamed Flexible PVC Backings
10.7.7 PVC Packaging Films
10.7.8 Direct and Indirect Medical Applications
10.7.9 Hoses and other Transparent Applications
10.7.10 Gaskets
10.7.11 Films
10.7.12 Transparent PVC Agricultural Film
10.7.13 Automotive Applications
10.7.14 Waterstop Membranes
10.7.15 Shoe Soles
10.7.16 Oil-Resistant Applications
10.7.17 Electrical Plugs
10.7.18 Roofing Membranes
10.7.19 Conveyor Belts
10.7.20 Tarpaulins
10.7.21 PVC-NBR Alloys
10.7.22 PVC-EVA Alloys
10.7.23 Dry Blend Recommendations
10.8 Specifications for and Quality Control Testing on Flexible PVC Products
10.8.1 Tensile Properties after Oven Aging
10.8.2 Thermal Stability by Torque Rheometer
10.8.3 Melt Viscosity
10.8.4 Hardness
10.8.5 Low Temperature Brittleness
10.8.6 Plasticizer Compatibility
10.8.7 Moisture
10.8.8 Poor Dispersion, Contamination and Resin Gels
10.8.9 Small-Scale Defects and Surface Phenomena
10.9 Regulatory Issues
10.10 Future Projections
11 Specialty PVC Resins
Viswanathan Narayan, Peter Gall, Saleem Shakir, Ashok Shah, David Poledna, Andy Olah
11.1 Dispersion and Blending Resins
11.2 Powder Process Resins
11.2.1 PVC for Powder Coating and Powder Molding Systems
11.3 Specialty Suspension PVC Resins
11.3.1 Ultra-High-Molecular Resins
11.3.2 Ultra-High-Absorptive Resin
11.3.3 Deglossing or Dulling Resins
11.3.4 Specialty Grade Coarse Emulsion Resins
11.4 Copolymer Resins
11.4.1 Conventional VCl/VAc Copolymers
11.4.2 Solution Polymers
11.5 Overview of Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride Materials, Products and Applications
11.5.1 Introduction
11.5.2 The Chlorination Process
11.5.3 Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride Compounds
11.5.4 End-Use Applications for Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride Compounds
11.5.4.1 Potable Water Distribution at Elevated Temperatures
11.5.4.2 Industrial Handling of Corrosive Fluids at Elevated Temperatures
11.5.4.3 CPVC-Based Fire Sprinkler Systems
11.5.4.4 CPVC-Based Non-Pipe Products that Offer Alternatives to Other High-Temperature Thermoplastics
11.5.5 CPVC Compounding and Processing
11.6 Summary
12 Properties, Characterization and Testing of PVC, its Materials and Additives
Michael Schiller, Peter Frenkel, Richard Krock
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Characterization at the Molecular Level
12.2.1 Measurement of Residual Vinyl Chloride Monomer (RVCM) in PVC Resins and Articles
12.2.1.1 Measuring RVCM in PVC Resin and In-Process Wastewater
12.2.1.2 Measuring RVCM in PVC Materials
12.2.2 Characterization of PVC at the Molecular Level
12.2.3 Characterization at the Particulate Level
12.2.4 Other Methods of Characterizing PVC
12.3 Characterization of Additives for PVC and CPVC
12.3.1 Stabilizers
12.3.1.1 Lead-Containing Stabilizers, Mixed-Metal Carboxylates and Calcium-Organic Stabilizers
12.3.1.2 Tin Stabilizers
12.3.2 Lubricants [32]
12.3.3 Functional Fillers
12.3.4 Plasticizers [33]
12.3.5 Processing Aids and Impact Modifiers
12.3.6 Titanium Dioxide
12.3.7 Dispersibility Test for Non-melting Additives [35]
12.4 Characterization of PVC Compounds
12.4.1 Characterization of Dry Blends
12.4.1.1 Dry-Blend Flow [37]
12.4.1.2 Gelation Behavior [38]
12.4.2 Characterization of Final Compounds
12.4.2.1 Tests in the Applications/Technical Service Laboratory
12.4.2.2 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)
12.4.2.3 Raman Spectroscopy
12.4.2.4 ATR-FTIR Spectroscopy
12.4.2.5 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS)
12.4.2.6 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM)
12.4.2.7 XRF Spectroscopy
12.4.2.8 Zeta Potential
12.4.3 Characterization of Compounds after Digestion
12.5 Summary
13 Flammability and Fire Performance
Marcelo M. Hirschler
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Thermal Degradation and Thermal Decomposition
13.3 Thermal Decomposition and Fire Properties
13.4 Fire Performance: General
13.5 Individual Fire Properties and Associated Test Methods
13.5.1 Ignitability
13.5.2 Ease of Extinction
13.5.3 Small-Scale Flammability
13.5.4 Flame Spread
13.5.5 Heat Release
13.5.6 Smoke Obscuration
13.6 Fire Retardants and Smoke Suppression
13.7 Smoke Toxicity
13.8 Hydrogen Chloride Decay
13.9 Fire Modeling and Fire Hazard Assessment
13.10 Guidance in an International Technical Report
13.11 Codes and Regulations Affecting PVC Materials and Products in the U.S. and Europe
13.12 Summary
13.13 Appendix 1 - Fire Safety Definitions
13.14 Appendix 2 - Meaning of Major Cone Calorimeter Fire Properties
14 Flame Retardants and Smoke Suppressants
Gianluca Sarti
14.1 Introduction
14.2 The Chemistry behind Flame Retardancy, Smoke Suppression and Acid Scavenging
14.2.1 Flame Retardants and Smoke Suppressants in PVC
14.2.1.1 The Physics and Chemistry behind the Modes of Action
14.2.1.2 Halogenated Flame Retardants
14.2.1.3 Chlorinated Paraffins and Polyethylene
14.2.1.4 Organobromine Compounds
14.2.1.5 Antimony Trioxide (ATO)
14.2.1.6 Borates
14.2.1.7 Incipient Lewis Acids
14.2.1.8 Flame-Retardant Functional Fillers
14.2.1.9 Phosphorus-Based Flame Retardants
14.2.2 High-Temperature Acid Scavengers
15 Weatherability of PVC Compounds
Michael Schiller, Hans-Joachim Timpe
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Introduction to Photochemistry for Beginners
15.3 Mechanisms of Weathering of PVC Products
15.3.1 Photochemical Degradation of PVC
15.3.2 Degradation of PVC Phthalate Plasticizers during Weathering [7]
15.3.3 The Influence of Titanium Dioxide on Weathering [9]
15.4 Long-Term Weathering [10]
15.4.1 Weathering and Color Retention
15.4.1.1 Influence of Stabilizers
15.4.1.2 Influence of Pigments
15.4.1.3 Influence of Calcium Carbonate
15.4.1.4 Influence of Impact Modifiers and Processing Aids
15.4.1.5 Influence of Processing Conditions
15.4.2 Weathering and Impact Retention
15.4.2.1 Influence of PVC Resin [33]
15.4.2.2 Influence of Impact Modifier [33]
15.4.2.3 Influence of Stabilizer [33]
15.4.2.4 Influence of Filler
15.4.2.5 Influence of Processing Conditions
15.4.3 Weathering and Dimensional Stability
15.4.3.1 Material Properties [37]
15.4.3.2 Product-Design Considerations
15.4.3.3 Internal Stress in the Profile
15.5 Short-Term Weathering Effects
15.5.1 Photobluing
15.5.2 Photopinking [44]
15.5.3 Photograying
15.5.4 Sunburn
15.5.5 Chalking
15.5.6 Discoloration by the Environment
15.5.7 Yellowing
15.5.7.1 Discoloration under Low Irradiation: to Yellow, then Red
15.5.7.2 Yellowing of Computer Equipment [61]
15.5.7.3 Dark Yellowing
15.6 Weathering Test Methods [64]
15.7 Weathering Test Methods
15.7.1 General Laboratory Weathering [68]
15.7.2 Outdoor Weathering [68]
15.7.3 Plastics [68]
15.7.4 More US Industrial Standards for PVC [69]
15.8 Summary
16 Fabrication Processes
Stefan Huck, James L. Throne
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Rigid PVC Processes
16.2.1 Extrusion
16.2.1.1 Single-Screw Extruder
16.2.1.2 Twin-Screw Extruder
16.2.1.3 Cylindrical versus Conical Twin-Screw Extruders
16.2.1.4 Melt Flow Path to the Die
16.2.1.5 Gear Pump
16.2.1.6 General Die Design
16.2.1.7 Foam Extrusion
16.2.1.8 Downstream Calibration and Take-Off
16.2.2 Calendering
16.2.3 Injection Molding
16.2.3.1 Screw Injection Molding Machine
16.2.3.2 Injection Mold Design
16.2.4 Blow Molding
16.2.4.1 Extrusion Blow Molding
16.2.4.2 Injection Blow Molding,
16.2.5 Thermoforming
16.2.5.1 Thin-Gauge Thermoforming
16.2.5.2 Heavy-Gauge Thermoforming
16.2.5.3 Other Heavy-Gauge PVC-Type Sheet Forming
16.2.6 Compression Molding with Radio-Frequency Heating
16.2.6.1 PVC in Compression Molding
16.2.6.2 Challenges in Early PVC Molding
16.2.7 Additive Manufacturing/3D Printing
16.2.7.1 Introduction
16.2.7.2 History of PVC-Based 3D Printing
16.2.7.3 The Patent
16.2.7.4 The Commercialization
16.2.7.5 The Benefits and Challenges
16.3 Composite Processing
16.3.1 Fillers
16.3.2 Foams
16.3.3 Effect of Fillers and Reinforcements on Viscosity
16.3.4 Effect of Dissolved Gases on Viscosity
16.3.5 Filled and Reinforced Foams - A Comment
16.3.6 The Role of Additives
16.4 Processing PVC-Containing Polymers
16.4.1 Processing Chlorinated PVC
16.4.2 PVC-ABS
16.4.3 PVC-PMMA
16.5 Plasticized PVC Processes
16.5.1 Liquid Processing
16.5.1.1 Coating
16.5.1.2 Slush Molding
16.5.1.3 Rotational Molding
16.5.2 Soft Processing
16.5.2.1 Flow Molding
16.5.2.2 Drysol Rotational Molding
16.5.2.3 Lower-Durometer or Semi-Rigid Processing
16.5.2.4 Extrusion
16.5.2.5 Blow Molding
16.5.2.6 Injection Molding
16.5.2.7 Blown Film
16.6 Joining and Assembly
16.6.1 Dielectric Welding
16.6.2 Solvent Welding
16.6.3 Thermal Welding
16.6.4 Heat Staking
16.6.5 Mechanical Fastening
16.6.6 Electromagnetic Welding
17 Product Engineering Design
Rabeh Elleithy, Randy Brown
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Making a Good Product
17.3 Designing a Good Injection Molding Product
17.4 Processing Effect on PVC Products
17.4.1 Injection Molding Simulation Software
17.5 Material Properties of Molded PVC Products
17.6 End-Use Effects on Molded PVC Products
17.7 Design Considerations for Extruded Profiles
17.8 Processing Effects on Extruded PVC Products
17.9 Profile Extrusion Tooling Design for PVC
17.9.1 Introduction
17.9.2 Basic Rheology
17.9.3 Profile Extrusion Tool Design Methodology
17.10 Concluding Remarks
18 PVC Applications, their Standards and Regulations, and Starting Formulations
Mark T. Berard, Richard Krock, Mark Lavach, Robert Paradis, Sylvia Moore
18.1 Introduction
18.1.1 Sources of Applications Information
18.1.1.1 Advocating for PVC
18.1.2 Standards and Codes
18.1.3 Environmental Labels and Declarations
18.2 PVC Pipe
18.2.1 Pipe Organizations
18.2.2 Standards for Water Service Distribution
18.2.3 Drain, Waste and Vent
18.2.4 Starting-Point Formulations
18.3 Construction
18.3.1 Vinyl Siding
18.3.2 Windows and Doors
18.3.2.1 Fencing and Railing
18.3.2.2 Decking
18.3.3 Flooring
18.3.4 Single Ply Roofing
18.3.5 Other Construction
18.3.5.1 Wall Coverings
18.3.5.2 Water Containment Liners
18.3.5.3 Expansion Joints
18.4 Consumer Goods and Home Furnishings
18.4.1 Flexibles
18.5 Packaging
18.6 Electrical/Electronics
18.6.1 Conduit
18.7 Transportation/Automotive
18.8 Other Applications
18.8.1 Medical
18.8.2 Coatings
19 PVC Environmental, Health, Safety
D'Lane Wisner, James Lewis, Fred Krause, Ronald Kaminski
Updated by Richard Krock and Arjen Sevenster
19.1 Introduction
19.1.1 Industry Size and Safety Record
19.2 Overview of Monomer and Polymer Environmental Regulations and Performance (EDC/VCM/PVC)
19.2.1 Regulated Environmental Releases
19.2.2 Unregulated Environmental Releases
19.2.3 Regulation of PVC Resin Producers
19.2.4 Workplace Exposure
19.2.5 Dioxin Emissions
19.3 Compounding Processes
19.3.1 Raw Materials
19.3.1.1 PVC Resins - Safe Handling of PVC Resins
19.3.1.2 CPVC
19.3.1.3 PVC and CPVC Additives and GHS Information
19.3.2 Operations
19.3.2.1 Processing and Materials Handling - Resin and Compounding
19.3.2.2 Workplace Exposure and Emissions
19.3.2.3 PVC Dust Workplace Exposure
19.3.2.4 PVC Dust Combustibility
19.3.3 Fabrication
19.3.3.1 General
19.3.3.2 Equipment Hazards
19.4 Product Applications
19.4.1 Building and Construction
19.4.1.1 Pipe and Fittings
19.4.1.2 Siding, Windows and Fencing/Decking/Railing
19.4.2 Medical Products
19.4.3 Packaging
19.4.4 Automotive
19.4.5 Toys
19.5 Microplastics and PVC
19.6 End of Life
19.6.1 Recycling
19.6.2 Incineration
19.6.3 Landfill
19.7 Process Hazard and Program Safety
20 The Sustainability of PVC
Mark Everard, Jason Leadbitter, Sophi MacMillan
20.1 Introduction
20.2 What is Sustainable Development?
20.2.1 Defining Sustainable Development
20.2.2 The Characteristics of Tools for Sustainable Development
20.2.3 Overview of Tools Applied for Sustainable Development of Chemicals and Materials
20.2.3.1 Hazard Versus Risk in Chemical Assessment Tools
20.2.3.2 The Natural Step (TNS) Approach
20.2.3.3 Safe & Sustainable by Design (SSbD)
20.2.3.4 Cradle to Cradle
20.2.3.5 Other Standards that Specifically Exclude PVC
20.3 Getting Started with Sustainable Development
20.3.1 VinylPlus, the VinylPlus Product Label and Associated Tools
20.3.1.1 VinylPlus - A Brief History
20.3.1.2 Vinyl 2010
20.3.1.3 VinylPlus
20.3.1.4 VinylPlus 2030
20.3.1.5 VinylPlus Product Label
20.3.1.6 VinylPlus Supplier Certificate (VSC)
20.3.1.7 Additive Sustainability Footprint
20.3.2 +Vantage Vinyl®
20.3.2.1 Background
20.3.2.2 +Vantage Vinyl
20.3.2.3 Third-Party Verification
20.3.2.4 Verification Overview
20.3.2.5 scoreWISET
20.3.3 PVC Stewardship Program (Australia)
20.3.3.1 Background
20.3.3.2 Compliance, Verification and Continuous Improvement
20.3.3.3 Product Labels (Australia)
20.3.4 Southern African Vinyls Association (SAVA) Product Stewardship Commitment
20.3.5 Material Rating and Certification Schemes
20.4 Chemical Evaluation on a Level Playing Field
21 Recycling of PVC
Richard Krock, Jason Leadbitter, Sophi MacMillan and Domenic DeCaria, with Section?21.9.1 by Johnathon Ferenc
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Understanding PVC Resins and Materials
21.3 PVC Applications in Use
21.4 PVC in the Waste Stream
21.5 Waste Hierarchy and End-of-Life Options
21.6 PVC Industry Recycling Initiatives
21.6.1 European VinylPlus®[30]
21.6.2 European Recovinyl®
21.6.3 U.S. Vinyl Sustainability Council VIABILITYT
21.6.4 Australian VinylCycle
21.6.5 Recycled PVC Market Size - Successes of the Vinyl Industry Recycling Initiatives
21.6.6 Determining the Recycling Rate of the Vinyl Industry
21.6.7 Recyclers' Capabilities
21.6.8 PVC Industry Recycling Case Studies
21.6.8.1 PVC Medical Articles: Recycling Case Studies
21.6.8.2 Australia Resilient PVC Floorcovering: Recycling Case Study [42]
21.6.9 Benefits of PVC Recycling from a Life Cycle Perspective
21.7 Markets for Recycled PVC
21.8 The Recyclability of PVC [46]
21.8.1 Hybrid Recycled Content Compounds
21.9 Incompatible Additives and Regulatory Compliance Issues
21.9.1 Lead-Containing Heat Stabilizers
21.9.2 Low-Molecular Ortho-Phthalate Plasticizers
21.10 Need for Advanced Recycling Technologies for Post-Consumer PVC Materials [51]
21.10.1 Advanced Recycling Technologies for PVC-Rich Resource Streams
21.10.1.1 Coupling and Compatibilizer Agents
21.10.1.2 Catalytic Decomposition
21.10.1.3 Microwave-Assisted Selective Decomposition
21.10.1.4 Selective Dissolution and Extraction Techniques
21.10.2 Advanced Recycling Technologies for PVC-Lean Resource Streams [66]
21.10.2.1 Pyrolysis of PVC-Lean Resource Streams [67]
21.10.2.2 Robust Regenerative Gasification for PVC-Lean Resource Streams [71]
21.10.3 Recovering and Recycling Chlorine from End-of-Life PVC Articles
21.10.4 Circularity is Achievable - Summary of Advanced Recycling Technologies
21.11 Conclusions and Recommendations [81]
22 Decarbonization of PVC
Peter Frenkel, Jason Leadbitter, Domenic DeCaria
22.1 Transition to Bio-Sourced Feedstocks in the PVC Value Chain: Renewable Raw Materials and Bio-Feedstocks
22.2 Bio-Based Components of PVC Materials
22.2.1 Bio-Sourced PVC Resins
22.2.2 Bio-Based PVC Additives
22.2.2.1 Biopolymers Suitable for Blending with PVC
22.2.2.2 Bio-Based Plasticizers for PVC Plasticizates
22.2.2.3 Biogenic Fillers and PVC Composites
22.2.2.4 Bio-Based Heat Stabilizers
22.2.2.5 Bio-Based Lubricants
22.3 Bio-Based PVC Materials and Carbon Footprint
22.4 Reducing the Carbon Footprint via Process Decarbonization
22.4.1 Key Process Decarbonization Pathways for the PVC Industry
22.4.1.1 Enhanced Energy Efficiency Measures
22.4.1.2 Electrification of Boilers and Development of Advanced Electric Furnaces
22.4.1.3 Fuel Switching to Low-Carbon Hydrogen, Biofuels and Nuclear Energy
22.4.1.4 Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage (CCUS) as a Complementary Solution
22.4.2 Areas for Research in Decarbonization of PVC
22.4.2.1 Advanced Modeling and Process Optimization for PVC Production
22.4.2.2 Materials for High-Temperature Electric Furnaces and Their Design
22.4.2.3 Designing Modular Carbon Capture and Utilization (CCU) Systems for Industry-Specific Applications
22.4.3 Potential Impacts, Practicality and Timing for Decarbonization of PVC Processes
22.5 PVC and Inter-Material Competition on the GWP Scale
22.5.1 Inter-Material Competition with Other Plastics
22.5.2 Inter-Material Competition with Non-Plastics
23 PVC Industry Structure and Dynamics
Ana Lopez, David Smalley
23.1 Supply and Producers
23.1.1 Global Regional Supply
23.1.2 Leading Producers
23.1.3 Producer Backward Integration
23.1.4 Producer Forward Integration
23.1.5 Industry Restructuring
23.2 Demand
23.2.1 Global Regional Demand
23.2.2 Per Capita Consumption
23.2.3 Demand by End Use
23.2.4 Market Status of Specialty Resins
23.2.5 Merchant Resin vs. Compound Sales
23.2.6 Impact of Regulations
23.2.7 Interregional Trade
23.2.8 Growth Forecast to 2030
23.2.9 Capacity Needs
23.3 Pricing and Economics
23.3.1 Resin Price Structure
23.3.2 Price Determinants
23.3.3 PVC Resin Cost Components
23.3.4 Capital Investment in New Plant
24 Global Vinyl Council
Richard Krock, Ned Monroe
24.1 Introduction
24.2 The U.S. Vinyl Institute, Washington, D.C.
24.3 European Council of Vinyl Manufacturers, Brussels, Belgium
24.4 Vinyl Institute Canada, Niagara Falls, Ontario
24.5 Vinyl Council of Australia, St Kilda, Melbourne, Australia
24.6 Japan Vinyl Environmental Council, Tokyo, Japan
24.7 ASEAN Vinyl Council, Bangkok, Thailand
24.8 Korea Vinyl Environment Council, Seoul, Republic of Korea
24.9 Southern African Vinyls Association, Midrand, Johannesburg, SA
24.10 BRAZILIAN PVC INSTITUTE (INSTITUTO BRASILEIRO DO PVC), Sao Palo, Brazil
24.11 Asociación Argentina del PVC, Buenos Aires, Argentina
24.12 ACOPLÁSTICOS, Bogatá, Colombia
24.13 ProVinilo - Asociación Nacional de la Industria Química, México City, México
24.14 Indian Vinyl Council, Mumbai, India
24.15 China Chlor-Alkali Industry Association, Tianjin, China
24.16 Related Trade Associations in the Global Chlor-Vinyl Value Chain
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