Critical Systems Thinking
Description
Understand the full range of systems approaches and how to use them with this innovative overview.
Leaders and managers face increasing complexity and uncertainty because technical, organizational, socio-cultural, political, and environmental issues have become intensely interconnected. Systems thinking is recognized as the essential competence for managing complexity. As the demand for systems thinking grows, however, the fragmentation of the field into different methodologies has become a potential liability. Critical systems thinking (CST) shows how this diversity can be a strength rather than a weakness by revealing how different systems methodologies address various aspects of complexity and how they can be used in combination to resolve the messiest of wicked problems.
Critical Systems Thinking offers, in a single volume, an account of the value of systems thinking and CST in the modern world, an explanation of the pragmatic philosophy and expansion in mindset necessary to embrace CST, and detailed instructions on how to undertake critical systems practice (CSP) using the variety of systems approaches to navigate multi-dimensional complexity.
Readers will find:
- An accessible introduction to systems thinking and CST.
- A description and critique of the best-known systems methodologies.
- A guide to the mindset changes, the steps required, and the toolkit necessary to undertake successful CSP.
- Case studies and examples of CSP.
- A discussion of the nature of systemic leadership.
Critical Systems Thinking is ideal for leaders and managers in government, business, the public sector, the professions, and beyond who want to understand the potential of systems thinking and use it in their work. It is essential for systems researchers and practitioners who want a deeper understanding of the field.
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Person
Dr Michael C. Jackson is an established expert in systems thinking and the major figure in the development of CST. He is Emeritus Professor, and former Dean of the Business School, University of Hull, UK, and Managing Director of Systems Research Ltd. He has served as President of the International Federation for Systems Research and the International Society for the Systems Sciences. He was awarded an OBE by Her Majesty the Queen (2011) for services to business and higher education, the Beale Medal of the UK Operational Research Society (2017), and the Pioneer Award of the International Council on Systems Engineering (2022). His previous book for Wiley, Critical Systems Thinking and the Management of Complexity (2019), is regarded as the definitive account of the history of systems thinking and the different systems methodologies.
Content
Preface xi
Acronyms xv
Introduction xvii
Part 1 The Emergence of Critical Systems Thinking 1
1 The Scientific Method 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Early Systems Thinking 4
1.3 The Ascendancy of the Scientific Method 5
1.4 Romanticism and Disquiet 7
1.5 The Challenge of Complexity 10
1.6 Science and the Scientific Method in the Spotlight 13
1.7 Conclusion 15
References 17
2 Systems Thinking 19
2.1 Introduction 19
2.2 The Challenge Confronting Systems Thinking 20
2.3 Complexity and Wicked Problems 21
2.4 The Search for General Systems Laws 24
2.4.1 Bogdanov and Tektology 24
2.4.2 Von Bertalanffy and General Systems Theory 25
2.4.3 Wiener and Cybernetics 27
2.4.4 Complexity Theory 30
2.5 The 'Problem' of Emergence 34
2.6 A Pluralistic Approach to the Use of Systems Thinking 38
2.7 The Development of Systems Methodologies 39
2.8 Conclusion 41
References 42
3 Critical Systems Thinking 47
3.1 Introduction 47
3.2 The Origins and Early Development of Critical Systems Thinking 48
3.3 Systemic Critique 50
3.4 Systemic Pluralism 52
3.5 Systemic Improvement 53
3.6 The Argument for Systemic Pragmatism 55
3.6.1 From Paradigms to Pragmatism 55
3.6.2 What Is Pragmatism? 56
3.6.3 Towards Systemic Pragmatism 59
3.7 Conclusion 64
References 64
Part 2 Critical Systems Practice 69
4 Critical Systems Practice: An Overview 71
4.1 Introduction 71
4.2 The Origins of Critical Systems Practice 71
4.3 Contemporary Critical Systems Practice 72
4.3.1 Essence 72
4.3.2 The EPIC Framework 73
4.3.3 The Four Stages 73
4.3.3.1 Explore the Situation of Interest 73
4.3.3.2 Produce an Intervention Strategy 75
4.3.3.3 Intervene Flexibly 76
4.3.3.4 Check on Progress 76
4.4 Considerations on the Nature of Critical Systems Practice 77
4.5 Related Approaches 79
4.6 Conclusion 82
References 82
5 Critical Systems Practice 1 - Explore the Situation of Interest 85
5.1 Introduction 85
5.2 Explore - Preliminaries 85
5.2.1 Metaphors and World Hypotheses in Philosophy 87
5.2.2 Paradigms and Metaphors in Organisation Theory 89
5.2.3 Multiperspectival Approaches in Systems Thinking 91
5.3 Explore - Process 91
5.3.1 View the Situation of Interest from Five Systemic Perspectives 92
5.3.1.1 The Mechanical Systemic Perspective 93
5.3.1.2 The Interrelationships Systemic Perspective 94
5.3.1.3 The Organismic Systemic Perspective 95
5.3.1.4 The Purposeful Systemic Perspective 97
5.3.1.5 The Societal/Environmental Systemic Perspective 99
5.3.2 Identify Primary and Secondary Issues 100
5.4 Explore - Example: The Early Days of the COVID- 19 Pandemic in the United Kingdom 101
5.5 Explore - Issues 106
5.6 Conclusion 109
References 110
6 Critical Systems Practice 2 - Produce an Intervention Strategy 113
6.1 Introduction 113
6.2 Produce - Preliminaries 114
6.3 Produce - Process 115
6.3.1 Appreciate the Variety of Systems Approaches 115
6.3.2 Choose Appropriate Systems Methodologies 118
6.3.2.1 Engineering Systems Methodologies 118
6.3.2.2 System Dynamics 122
6.3.2.3 Living Systems Methodologies 127
6.3.2.4 Soft Systems Methodologies 134
6.3.2.5 Emancipatory Systems Methodologies 141
6.3.3 Choose Appropriate Systems Models and Methods 145
6.3.4 Structure, Schedule and Set Objectives for the Intervention 145
6.4 Produce - Examples 146
6.5 Produce - Issues 149
6.6 Conclusion 152
References 153
7 Critical Systems Practice 3 - Intervene Flexibly 159
7.1 Introduction 159
7.2 Intervene - Preliminaries 159
7.3 Intervene - Process 160
7.3.1 Use Systems Methodologies, Models and Methods Flexibly 160
7.3.2 Stay Alert to the Evolving Situation (Revisit Stage 1) 160
7.3.3 Stay Flexible About Appropriate Methodologies, Models and Methods (Revisit Stage 2) 160
7.4 Intervene - Examples 162
7.5 Intervene - Issues 169
7.6 Conclusion 170
References 170
8 Critical Systems Practice 4 - Check on Progress 173
8.1 Introduction 173
8.2 Check - Preliminaries 174
8.2.1 Systemic Evaluation: The Single Systems Methodology Approach 176
8.2.2 Systemic Evaluation: The Systems Concepts Approach 177
8.2.3 Systemic Evaluation: The Critical Systems Thinking Approach 180
8.3 Check - Process 181
8.3.1 Evaluate the Improvements Achieved 181
8.3.2 Reflect on the Learning Gained About the Systems Approaches Used 182
8.3.3 Discuss and Agree Next Steps 184
8.4 Check - Examples 184
8.5 Check - Issues 187
8.6 Conclusion 189
References 189
Part 3 Towards a Systems Thinking World 193
9 Critical Systems Leadership: Overcoming the Implementation Barriers 195
9.1 Introduction 195
9.2 The Growing Interest in Systems Thinking 196
9.3 Overcoming the Barriers to Implementation 200
9.3.1 Misconceptions About Systems Thinking 201
9.3.2 Problems with Systems Thinking 201
9.3.3 Contextual Factors 205
9.4 Critical Systems Leadership 209
9.4.1 Attributes of Critical Systems Leadership 210
9.4.1.1 Collective Leadership and Collaboration 210
9.4.1.2 Communication of a Vision and Open Dialogue 210
9.4.1.3 Co- creation 211
9.4.1.4 Attention to Managing the Collaboration 211
9.4.1.5 An Open Approach to Learning 211
9.4.1.6 An Ethical Orientation 211
9.4.1.7 Promotion of Appropriate Evaluation 211
9.4.2 Mindset for Critical Systems Leadership 212
9.4.3 Methodological Competence for Critical Systems Leadership 212
9.5 Conclusion 213
References 214
Conclusion 219
Index 223
Preface
I concluded the preface to my previous book with the statement: 'But it is definitely my last book'. I probably did the same in earlier books - I do not dare to look. Writing a book asks a lot of those close to you as you need to go 'missing' for an extended period. It is exhausting for the writer. There are other things you could be doing. So, what is the excuse for this new book?
I felt there was unfinished business. My previous book, Critical Systems Thinking and the Management of Complexity (Wiley, 2019), is a comprehensive overview of applied Systems Thinking (ST), demonstrating how Critical Systems Thinking (CST) could bring order to that diverse field and suggesting how best to use systems approaches in practice. I remain pleased with it, and it has been well received. The book is, however, 700 pages long and contains much (necessary for its purpose) historical and theoretical exposition. It sets a challenge to readers. Though it is one, I am assured, that is worth the effort. My only regret is that I did not manage to present a clear enough account of Critical Systems Practice (CSP) towards the end of that book. It is all there, and you cannot tie everything down, but that account could be better structured. This new book, Critical Systems Thinking: A Practitioner's Guide, seeks to address both these points. It is more accessible, shorter and dwells on history and theory only if essential. The book is designed to provide the most intelligible and direct account of how best to use CST in practice. To my mind, it complements the earlier book nicely.
I felt some frustration. It continues to amaze me that, in a world beset by many complex problems, there is so little recognition of what ST has to offer. From the 1940s to the 1970s, ST led the development of exciting new ideas. This was the era of the formation of the Society for General Systems Research, the Macy conferences on cybernetics, and the Gaither lectures at Berkeley. Systems practice helped transform the postwar Japanese economy (the Deming Management Method); put a man on the moon (Systems Engineering); was involved in such ambitious social experiments as the Norwegian Industrial Democracy Project (Sociotechnical Systems Thinking) and supporting the Allende government in Chile (the Viable System Model); and was influential in the birth of the environmental movement (System Dynamics and 'limits to growth'). Today, it is rarely taught in universities and while there has been a resurgence of interest in ST, this is not accompanied by a knowledge of its history, the lessons it can impart, or the breadth and diversity of the systems tradition. I have been working on this for 45 years. I have written numerous books and articles and used ST at work and in consultancy. I have done my apprenticeship and earned my stripes. I have tried to do justice to the approach, but it seems that one more attempt is necessary.
I felt that introducing two new 'frameworks' could help me express what CST was about more clearly. The first of these I owe to Zhichang Zhu, who led me on a journey from 'paradigms to pragmatism', which at times was difficult for me. I had heard people say what a revelation and liberation it was to abandon the 'spectator theory of knowledge', seeking accurate representations of an underlying 'reality', and embrace the philosophy of pragmatism, in which theories are seen as instruments to guide action. I now know that this is the case. ST has strong pragmatist roots. I believe that, in this book, I have explained it better by paying homage to and enhancing those roots.
The second 'framework' I owe to Cathy Hobbs, who insisted that I provide greater clarity on the phases of CSP and that a mnemonic would help. We came up with EPIC, and Cathy supplied the first version of the diagram I use to explain EPIC. It is difficult to capture how exactly systems practice should proceed because it needs to be innovative and flexible in response to the exigencies of the situation in which it is employed. The invention of the mnemonic prompted me to spell out what I thought could be achieved. EPIC is, of course, a label used with tongue firmly in cheek. It is meant to reinforce my insistence that CSP is an 'ideal type' of good systems practice. The concept of an 'ideal type' comes from the sociologist Max Weber. I adjust its meaning to make it relevant to practice and not just theory development. I see CSP as an abstract model of good systems practice, derived from research and experience. It cannot and is not supposed to be enacted in pure form in the real world. Its use will be different in every application. Nevertheless, it is essential to guide good systems practice, to reflect on what is occurring during an intervention and adjust as necessary, and to evaluate what has been achieved.
I felt a little unfulfilled. My previous books have been structured as accounts and reflections on the work of others, from which I sought to develop new ideas of my own. That is fine; you need to know a field thoroughly to make a useful contribution. Too much of what goes under the label ST, now that it is becoming popular again, shows little appreciation of what has gone before. It does not build on what has already been achieved or seek to learn from previous mistakes. At best, it ends up reinventing the wheel. That said, I remembered Russ Ackoff insisting that one day I should stop standing on the shoulders of giants and write a book where my own ideas controlled the narrative from beginning to end. In almost all cases, you should do what Russ advises, and I have attempted to do so. I hope he would approve.
I felt I might be abandoning some aspirations too early. In 1814, Wordsworth wrote about 'The French Revolution as It Appeared to Enthusiasts at Its Commencement': 'Bliss was it in that dawn to be alive, But to be young was very heaven!' I am a child of the 1960s and have always felt about that period in the same way. Revolution was in the air; minds were expanding; wars were opposed; imperialism was called out; global and class inequalities were challenged; movements for women's, black and LGBT+ rights were underway; and environmental awareness grew. The music certainly seemed better. Of course, there were issues, but some things did change. Not enough, though. I was talking to John Mingers and suggested we had made some small contribution to management science. He pointed out how trivial that was compared to the ambitions we held in the 1960s. He was right, but what do you say? I could only respond: 'Better carry on then'.
I felt that I should continue to 'rage against the dying of the light'. This is hard to escape when you have had cancer for 12 years, another major liver operation in 2021, and you are on a monthly drug regime. I am, incidentally, very lucky. I can still enjoy beer and walking. Hull Kingston Rovers are getting closer to the success that us fans, and especially the owner, Neil Hudgell, deserve. Hull City are improving. Yorkshire County Cricket Club could do with some ST. My everyday life remains largely unaffected, thanks to the NHS, modern medicine, and a skilled surgeon, Professor Peter Lodge. I really should not go 'gentle'.
In the acknowledgements in previous books, I have referred to many individuals, and I continue to owe them all a huge debt. Here I acknowledge, in addition, some organisations responsible for flying the flag for ST in the United Kingdom. The Open University Systems Group celebrated 50 years of teaching ST in 2021. It has been preeminent in spreading systems expertise through its teaching and the 'systems thinking in practice' (STiP) approach. Systems and Complexity in Organisation (SCiO) has gained government recognition as the professional body for systems thinkers. It was instrumental in launching the 'Systems Thinking Practitioner Apprenticeship', which has spread the teaching of ST to a wider range of universities and opened opportunities for in-work systems training. Of course, I must mention the Centre for Systems Studies at the University of Hull, which celebrated its 30th anniversary in 2022. It pioneered CST and, I would claim, continues to make significant intellectual advancements in the field leading to improved forms of systems practice. Its previous directors deserve a mention: (me), Bob Flood, Gerald Midgley, Jennifer Wilby, Yasmin Merali and Amanda Gregory. Under its current sole director, Amanda Gregory, it is undergoing a significant renaissance. I also wish to acknowledge three 'communities' that I have been involved with recently, which have helped me learn more about ST. I have a lecture series in my name at the University of Hull, kindly sponsored by Dr. Andrew and Mrs. Valerie Chen. I must prepare by reading the works of the guest lecturers so I can ask sensible questions. I have, as is obvious in this book, learned much from Andrea Wulf, Fritjof Capra, Debra Hammond, Peter Senge, Carlo Rovelli, Dave Snowden and Charles Foster. I worked with a community of systems thinkers to help prepare a report for the Alliance for Health Policy and Systems Research. This project has not yet come to fruition, but I am conscious that our many exchanges have infiltrated my thinking and this book. I therefore thank Cathy Hobbs, Patrick Hoverstadt, Martin Reynolds, Luis Sambo, Anne Stephens and Bob Williams. The third 'community' consists of Paul Barnett and the facilitators, guest presenters and participants on the first two cohorts of the 'Critical Systems Thinking...
