Enabling the Internet of Things
Description
Enabling the Internet of Things: Fundamentals, Design, and Applications delivers a comprehensive starting point for anyone hoping to understand the fundamentals and design of Internet of Things (IoT) systems. The book's distinguished academics and authors offer readers an opportunity to understand IoT concepts via programming in an abstract way. Readers will learn about IoT fundamentals, hardware and software components, IoT protocol stacks, security, IoT applications and implementations, as well as the challenges, and potential solutions, that lie ahead.
Readers will learn about the social aspects of IoT systems, as well as receive an introduction to the Blockly Programming Language, IoT Microcontrollers, IoT Microprocessors, systems on a chip and IoT Gateway Architecture. The book also provides implementation of simple code examples in Packet Tracer, increasing the usefulness and practicality of the book. Enabling the Internet of Things examines a wide variety of other essential topics, including:
* The fundamentals of IoT, including its evolution, distinctions, definitions, vision, enabling technologies, and building blocks
* An elaboration of the sensing principles of IoT and the essentials of wireless sensor networks
* A detailed examination of the IoT protocol stack for communications
* An analysis of the security challenges and threats faced by users of IoT devices, as well as the countermeasures that can be used to fight them, from the perception layer to the application layer
Perfect as a supplementary text for undergraduate students taking computer science or electrical engineering courses, Enabling the Internet of Things also belongs on the bookshelves of industry professionals and researchers who regularly work with and on the Internet of Things and who seek a better understanding of its foundational and advanced topics.
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Persons
MUHAMMAD AZHAR IQBAL, PHD, is Lecturer (Assistant Professor) at the Southwest Jiaotong University in China. He obtained his PhD in Communication and Information Systems from Huazhong University of Science and Technology, China, in 2012.
SAJJAD HUSSAIN, PHD, is Senior Lecturer (Associate Professor) at the University of Glasgow in the United Kingdom. He received his doctorate in Signal Processing and Communications from the University of Rennes 1 in France in 2009.
HUANLAI XING, PHD, is Associate Professor at the Southwest Jiaotong University in China. He received his PhD in Computer Science at the University of Nottingham in the United Kingdom in 2013.
MUHAMMAD ALI IMRAN, PHD, is Professor of Communication Systems in James Watt School of Engineering at the University of Glasgow in the United Kingdom and Dean University of Glasgow, UESTC.
Content
About the Authors xiii
Preface xv
Acknowledgments xix
1 Internet of Things (IoT) Fundamentals 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Evolution of IoT Concept 2
1.3 IoT Vision 3
1.4 IoT Definition 5
1.5 IoT Basic Characteristics 6
1.6 IoT Distinction 7
1.6.1 IoT Versus Embedded Systems 7
1.6.2 IoT Versus M2M 7
1.6.3 IoT Versus CPS 7
1.6.4 IoT Versus WSN 8
1.6.5 IoT Versus WoT 8
1.7 IoT General Enablers 9
1.7.1 Identification and Sensing Technologies 10
1.7.2 Wireless Communication and Networking 11
1.7.3 Aggregation Standardization 14
1.7.4 Augmented Intelligence 14
1.7.5 Augmented Behavior 15
1.8 IoT Architectures 16
1.8.1 Three-layer IoT Architecture 17
1.8.1.1 Perception Layer 17
1.8.1.2 Network Layer 18
1.8.1.3 Application Layer 18
1.8.2 Five-Layer IoT Architecture 19
1.8.2.1 Object (Perception) Layer 19
1.8.2.2 Object Abstraction (Network) Layer 19
1.8.2.3 Service Management (Middleware) Layer 19
1.8.2.4 Application Layer 19
1.8.2.5 Business Layer 19
1.8.3 Six-layer Architecture 20
1.8.3.1 Focus Layer 21
1.8.3.2 Cognizance Layer 21
1.8.3.3 Transmission Layer 21
1.8.3.4 Application Layer 21
1.8.3.5 Infrastructure Layer 21
1.8.3.6 Competence Business Layer 21
1.8.4 Seven-layer Architecture 21
1.8.4.1 Layer 1: Things Layer 21
1.8.4.2 Layer 2: Connectivity 21
1.8.4.3 Layer 3: Edge/Fog Computing 22
1.8.4.4 Layer 4: Data Accumulation 23
1.8.4.5 Layer 5: Data Abstraction Layer 23
1.8.4.6 Level 6: Application Layer 23
1.8.4.7 Layer 7: Collaboration and Processes 23
1.9 Advantages and Disadvantages of IoT 23
Review Questions 23
References 25
2 IoT Building Blocks - Hardware and Software 29
2.1 IoT Building Blocks 29
2.2 The Smart Things 29
2.2.1 Smart Thing Sensor 30
2.2.2 Smart Thing Communicator 31
2.2.3 Smart Thing Actuator 31
2.2.4 Smart Thing Controller 32
2.2.4.1 Microcontroller (MCU) 32
2.2.4.2 Development Boards 32
2.2.4.3 Packet Tracer and MCUs 33
2.2.5 Smart Thing Capabilities 36
2.3 The IoT Gateway 38
2.4 Network Infrastructure 39
2.5 IoT Cloud 39
2.5.1 Virtual Resource Pool 39
2.5.2 Application Server 39
2.5.3 Database Servers 40
2.5.4 Load-balancing Servers 41
2.6 IoT Analytics 41
2.6.1 IoT Analytics - Tools and Techniques 42
2.6.2 IoT Analytics Life Cycle 43
2.7 IoT Applications 43
Review Questions 43
References 45
3 Sensing Principles and Wireless Sensor Network 49
3.1 Sensor Fundamentals 49
3.2 Sensor Classification 51
3.2.1 Simple (Direct) Sensor Versus Complex Sensor 51
3.2.2 Active Sensors Versus Passive Sensors 51
3.2.3 Contact Sensors Versus Noncontact Sensors 52
3.2.4 Absolute Sensors and Relative Sensors 52
3.2.5 Digital Sensors Versus Analog Sensors (Based on Output) 52
3.2.6 Scalar Sensor Versus Vector Sensors (Based on Data Types) 52
3.3 Anatomy of Sensors 52
3.4 Physical Principles of Sensing 53
3.4.1 Capacitance 53
3.4.1.1 Examples of Capacitive Sensors 55
3.4.2 Magnetism and Induction 57
3.4.2.1 Magnetic Sensing Examples 59
3.4.3 Electric Resistance and Resistivity 60
3.4.3.1 Resistive Sensor Applications 61
3.4.4 Piezoelectric Effect 61
3.5 Use of Basic Sensing Principles in RFID Technology 61
3.6 Actuators 62
3.7 Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) 63
3.7.1 WSN Architecture 63
3.7.2 Types of WSNs 64
3.7.3 General Characteristics of WSNs 64
3.7.4 Protocol Stack of WSNs 65
3.7.4.1 Physical Layer 65
3.7.4.2 Data Link Layer (DLL) 66
3.7.4.3 Network Layer 68
3.7.4.4 Transport Layer 68
3.7.4.5 Application Layer 69
3.7.4.6 Cross-layer WSN Protocols 69
3.7.5 WSN Operating Systems 69
3.7.5.1 WSN OS Design Issues 71
Review Questions 72
References 72
4 IoT Gateway 75
4.1 The IoT Gateway 75
4.2 Sensing Domain and IoT Gateways 77
4.3 The Architecture of IoT Gateway 79
4.3.1 Hardware Layer of IoT Gateway 79
4.3.2 OS Layer of IoT Gateway 80
4.3.3 Hardware Abstraction Layer 80
4.3.4 Data Forwarding Layer 80
4.3.5 Service Abstraction Layer 81
4.3.6 Manageability Layer 81
4.3.7 Security Layer 81
4.3.8 Application Layer 81
4.4 Selection of IoT Gateway 81
4.4.1 Nature of IoT System Architecture 81
4.4.2 Multiple Network Connectivity Support 82
4.4.3 Data Storage Capacity 82
4.4.4 Development Environment 82
4.4.5 Robust Security Mechanism 82
4.4.6 External Hardware Watchdog Timer 83
4.4.7 Time Synchronization 83
4.4.8 Firmware Update 83
4.4.9 LED Indication and Remote Reboot 83
4.4.10 Support for Legacy Equipment 83
4.4.11 Standard Protocol Support 83
4.4.12 Gateway Certification 83
4.4.13 Control of Low Power Footprint 84
4.4.14 Support for Edge Computing 84
4.5 IoT Gateways and Edge Computing 84
4.5.1 Benefits of Edge Computing 84
4.5.2 Use Cases of Edge Computing 85
4.5.2.1 Smart Home 85
4.5.2.2 Cooperative Safety Smart Vehicles 86
4.5.2.3 Provisioning of Infotainment Services for Smart Vehicles 86
4.5.2.4 Online Shopping Service 86
4.5.2.5 Healthcare and Collaborative Edge 86
4.5.2.6 Video Monitoring and Analysis 87
4.5.2.7 Smart City 87
4.5.2.8 Security Surveillance 87
4.5.2.9 Retail Advertising 87
4.5.3 Challenges of Edge Computing-based IoT Systems 87
4.5.3.1 System Integration 88
4.5.3.2 Resource Management 88
4.5.3.3 Security and Privacy 88
4.5.3.4 Heterogenous Communication 88
4.5.3.5 Data Analysis Support for Smart Systems 88
4.6 IoT Gateway Providers 89
Review Questions 89
References 90
5 IoT Protocol Stack 93
5.1 IoT Protocol Stack 93
5.2 IoT Protocols 95
5.2.1 Infrastructure Protocols 95
5.2.1.1 EPCglobal 95
5.2.1.2 Z-wave 96
5.2.1.3 Long-term Evolution - Advanced (LTE-A) 97
5.2.1.4 Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) 97
5.2.1.5 IEEE 802.15.4 97
5.2.1.6 IEEE 802.11ah 98
5.2.1.7 ZigBee 100
5.2.1.8 6LoWPAN 102
5.2.1.9 Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy Networks (RPL) 102
5.2.2 Service Discovery Protocols 104
5.2.2.1 Multicast Domain Name System (mDNS) 104
5.2.2.2 DNS Service Discovery (DNS-SD) 104
5.2.3 Application Layer Protocols 105
5.2.3.1 Data Distribution Service (DDS) 105
5.2.3.2 Message Queue Telemetry Transport (MQTT) 105
5.2.3.3 Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP) 111
5.2.3.4 Advanced Message Queuing Protocol (AMQP) 116
5.2.3.5 eXtensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP) 119
Review Questions 123
References 124
6 IoT Cloud and Fog Computing 127
6.1 IoT Cloud 127
6.1.1 Cloud Computing for IoT 129
6.1.2 IoT Cloud Architecture 129
6.1.2.1 Virtual Resource Pool 130
6.1.2.2 Application Server 130
6.1.2.3 Database Servers 131
6.1.2.4 Load-balancing Servers 131
6.1.3 Application Domains of IoT Cloud Platforms 134
6.2 Fog Computing for IoT 135
6.2.1 Difference from Related Computing Paradigms 136
6.2.1.1 Edge Computing 136
6.2.1.2 Mobile Edge Computing (MEC) 136
6.2.2 Architecture of Fog Computing 137
6.2.2.1 Physical and Virtualization Layer 137
6.2.2.2 Monitoring Layer 137
6.2.2.3 Preprocessing Layer 137
6.2.2.4 Temporary Storage Layer 137
6.2.2.5 Security Layer 137
6.2.2.6 Transport Layer 139
6.2.3 Fog Deployment Models 139
6.2.4 Fog Service Models 140
6.3 Case Study - Vehicles with Fog Computing 140
6.3.1 VANETs and Fog Computing 140
6.3.2 Dynamic Traffic Light Signal Management 141
6.3.3 Parking System 142
6.3.4 Content Distribution 143
6.3.5 Decision Support System 143
Review Questions 143
References 144
7 IoT Applications 147
7.1 Application Domains of IoT 147
7.2 IoT and Smart Home 147
7.2.1 IoT-based Smart Home Framework 148
7.3 IoT and Healthcare 150
7.4 IoT and Smart Mobility 153
7.4.1 Car Parking System 156
7.5 IoT and Agriculture 159
7.5.1 Major Instances of Crop Growth and IoT 159
7.5.2 IoT Architecture of Smart Agriculture 160
7.6 Smart Grid 162
7.7 IoT-based Smart Cities 164
7.8 IoT and Smart Education 167
7.9 Industrial IoT 168
Review Questions 168
References 170
8 IoT Security 173
8.1 IoT Systems and Security Constraints 173
8.1.1 IoT Security Constraints Based on Hardware Limitations 175
8.1.2 IoT Security Constraints Based on Software Limitations 176
8.1.3 IoT Security Constraints Based on Communication Limitations 176
8.2 IoT Security Requirements 176
8.2.1 Information-level Security Requirements 176
8.2.2 Access-level Security Requirements 177
8.2.3 Functional Security Requirements 177
8.3 Security Challenges 177
8.4 Taxonomy of IoT Security Threats/Attacks 178
8.4.1 IoT Security Attacks Based on Device Category 178
8.4.2 Attacks Based on Access Level 178
8.4.3 Attacks Based on Attacker's Location 178
8.4.4 Attacks Based on Attack Strategy 178
8.4.5 Attacks Based on Information Damage Level 180
8.4.6 Host-based IoT Attacks 180
8.4.7 Protocol-based Attacks 180
8.5 IoT Architecture and IoT Security 180
8.5.1 Perception Layer Security 180
8.5.2 Network Layer Security 183
8.5.3 IoT Application Layer Security 185
8.5.3.1 Security Threats at Support Layer of IoT Applications 185
8.5.3.2 Security Threats at Service Layer of IoT Applications 185
8.6 Multilayer Security Attacks 186
8.7 IoT Application Scenarios and IoT Security 186
8.7.1 Smart Home Security 186
8.7.2 Smart Healthcare Security 187
8.7.3 Smart Vehicle Security 189
8.7.4 Smart City Security/Privacy Concerns 190
Review Questions 190
References 192
9 Social IoT 195
9.1 Smart Things to Social Things 195
9.2 The Epitome of SIoT 196
9.3 Smart Thing Relationships in SIoT 197
9.4 SIoT Architecture 198
9.4.1 SIoT Server 198
9.4.1.1 The Network Layer of SIoT Server 199
9.4.1.2 The Application Layer of SIoT Server 199
9.4.1.3 The Interface Sublayer 200
9.4.2 The SIoT Gateway and Social Things 200
9.5 Features of SIoT System 200
9.6 Social Internet of Vehicles (SIoV) - An Example Use Case of SIoT 201
9.6.1 Reference Architecture of VANETs 201
9.6.2 Reference Architecture of IoV 203
9.6.2.1 Differences in Communication Standards 203
9.6.3 Reference Architecture of SIoV 205
9.6.3.1 Vehicle-Object Perception Layer (VOPL) 205
9.6.3.2 The IoV Gateway Layer 208
9.6.3.3 The Fog Layer 209
9.6.3.4 The Vehicular Cloud Layer 209
9.7 SIoV Application Services 209
Review Questions 210
References 210
10 Packet Tracer and IoT 213
10.1 IoT and Packet Tracer 213
10.2 Packet Tracer Programming Environment 214
10.3 Visual (Blockly) Programming Language 216
10.3.1 Hello World Program 217
10.4 Simple Smart Light Project 219
10.4.1 Adding Devices to Workspace 222
10.4.2 Connecting Devices 224
10.4.3 Using Program Blocks and Pin Access 227
References 234
11 IoT Projects in Packet Tracer 235
11.1 IoT Projects in Packet Tracer 235
11.2 Smart Things Directly Connected with Gateways 235
11.3 Smart Things and Sensors Directly Connected with MCUs (Without Gateways) 237
11.3.1 Adding Devices to Workspace 240
11.3.2 Connecting Devices Together 241
11.3.3 Blockly Programming for Smart Room 242
Review Questions 255
Index 259
1
Internet of Things (IoT) Fundamentals
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, students will be able to:
- describe the evolution of the IoT concept.
- state the vision and definition of IoT.
- explain the basic characteristics of IoT.
- distinguish the IoT from other related technologies.
- elaborate the IoT enablers.
- explain the IoT architectures.
- articulate the pros and cons of IoT.
- apply the IoT architecture concepts for specific IoT applications.
- understand the implementation aspect of IoT architecture.
1.1 Introduction
In our daily lives, the augmented practice of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) plays a paramount role in the development of emerging information societies. In developed countries, ICT is being employed to develop various innovative applications and services to address the challenges of sustainable societies, thus improving the quality of human lives. In the modern era, a plethora of things are being connected to each other using underlying network technologies with an aim to promote the paradigm of the Internet of Things (IoT). IoT is a network of uniquely identifiable connected things (also known as devices, objects, and items) offering intelligent computing services [1]. Things in IoT are also known as Smart Things that provide feasibility in performing the execution of daily life operations in a rational way. Moreover, IoT also positively assists the communication process among human beings. IoT comprises diversified technologies including pervasive computing, sensor technology, embedded system, communication technologies, sensor networking, Internet protocols, etc. which eventually underpin the economic growth of modern societies. The fundamental notion behind IoT is the provision of seamless ubiquitous connectivity among things and human beings. The basic idea of IoT can be conceived as a representation of various As and Cs, as shown in Figure 1.1 [2]. In Figure 1.1, the As reflect the concept of ubiquity or globalization (i.e. any device, anywhere, anytime, any network etc.) and the Cs mirror the main characteristics of IoT (i.e. connectivity, computing, convergence, etc.). IoT, in essence, can be seen as an addition of the third dimension named "Thing" to the plane of ICT world, which is fundamentally based on two dimensions of Place and Time as shown in Figure 1.2. This "anything" dimension ultimately boosts the ubiquity by enabling new forms of communication of humans and things and between things themselves [3].
Figure 1.1 The concept of As and Cs in the IoT.
Figure 1.2 Thing as a new dimension to endorse IoT.
Source: Peña-López [3].
1.2 Evolution of IoT Concept
The concept of ubiquitous computing through smart devices dates back to the early 1980s when a Coke machine at Carnegie Mellon University was connected to the Internet and able to report its inventory of cold drinks [4, 5]. Similarly, Mark Weiser in 1991 [6] provided the contemporary vision of IoT through the terminologies of ubiquitous computing and pervasive computing. Raji in 1994 elaborated the concept of home appliance automation to entire factories [7]. In 1999, Bill Joy presented six web frameworks wherein device-to-device communication could be formed [8]. Neil Gershenfeld in 1999 used a similar notion in his popular book When Things Start to Think [9]. In the same year, the term "Internet of Things" was promoted by Kevin Ashton during his work on Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) infrastructure at the Auto-ID Center of Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) [10]. In 2002, Kevin was quoted in Forbes Magazine with his saying "We need an Internet for things, a standardized way for computers to understand the real world" [11]. The article was entitled as The Internet of Things, which was the first-ever official document with the use of this term in a literal sense.
The evolution of IoT with reference to the technological progress in Internet conception is shown in Figure 1.3. The typical Internet introduced in the early 1990s was only concerned with the generation of static and dynamic contents on the World Wide Web (WWW). Later on, large-scale production and enterprise-level business collaborations initiated the creation of web services which laid the foundation of Web 2.0. Nevertheless, with the proliferation of affordable smartphones and tablets, social network apps become dominant on the Internet. In current situation, advancements in embedded system, Machine-to-Machine (M2M) communication, Cyber Physical Systems (CPS), Wireless Sensor Network (WSN), and Web of Things (WoT) technology enabled the communication of things over the Internet. The overall technological progression related to IoT is shown in Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3 Technological progression in IoT.
1.3 IoT Vision
The conventional WWW offers the convenience of information searching, e-mail conversation, and social networking. The emerging trend of IoT comes up with a vision of expanding these abilities through interactions with a wide spectrum of electronic appliances. In general, the IoT vision can be seen in terms of things centric and Internet centric. The things-centric vision encompasses the advancements of all technologies related to the notion of "Smart Things." On the other hand, the Internet-centric vision involves the advancement of network technologies to establish the connection of interactive smart things with the storage, integration, and management of generated data. Based on these views, the IoT system can be seen as a dynamic distributed network of smart things to produce, store, and consume the required information [12]. The IoT vision demands significant advances in different fields of ICT (i.e. digital identification technology, communication technology, networking technology, computing technology, and distribution system technology), which are in fact the enabling technologies or fundamental elements of IoT [13, 14]. More specifically, the IoT paradigm can be envisioned as the convergence of three elementary visions, i.e. Things-oriented vision, Network-oriented vision, and Semantic-oriented vision [15, 16]. This convergence of three visions with abilities and technologies is shown in Figure 1.4.
Figure 1.4 IoT as convergence of three visions.
Source: Adapted from Atzori et al. [15].
Things-oriented vision at the initial level promotes the idea of things network through unique identifiable Electronic Product Code (EPC). Things-oriented vision in the present form is evolved into smart sensor networks. In Internet-oriented vision, Internet Protocol for Smart Object (IPSO) communities is formed to realize the challenging task of smart sensor communication. Considering unique identification through Internet Protocol (IP) addressing, IPSO communities are working for the interoperability of smart things (having sensors) to IP protocol technologies. Finally, the Semantic-oriented vision provides the solution to deal with the huge amount of data generated by the IoT devices. IoT architectural layers and associated protocols have been structured in these three envisions [17].
1.4 IoT Definition
Considering the facts of similarity with peer technologies and envision the convergence of three different visions, it is not an easy job to provide a precise definition of IoT. In simple words, IoT could be deemed as a system wherein things are connected in such a manner that they can intelligently interact with each other as well as to humans. However, to better comprehend IoT, a number of standard organization and development bodies have provided their own definitions [13, 15, 18, 19]. A few IoT definitions presented by different standard organizations are illustrated in Table 1.1 [20].
Table 1.1 IoT definitions by standard organizations.
Standard organization IoT definition Institute of Electronic and Electric Engineering (IEEE) "The Internet of Things (IoT) is a framework in which all things have a representation and a presence in the Internet. More specifically, the IoT aims at offering new applications and services bridging the physical and virtual worlds, in which Machine-to-Machine (M2M) communications represents the baseline communication that enables the interactions between Things and applications in the Cloud." ... Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information Standards (OASIS) "System where the Internet is connected to the physical world via ubiquitous sensors."