Polysaccharides
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Inamuddin PhD is an assistant professor at King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia and is also an assistant professor in the Department of Applied Chemistry, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. He has extensive research experience in multidisciplinary fields of analytical chemistry, materials chemistry, electrochemistry, renewable energy and environmental science. He has published about 150 research articles in various international scientific journals, 18 book chapters, and edited 60 books with multiple well-known publishers.
Mohd Imran Ahamed PhD is in the Department of Chemistry, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. He has published several research and review articles in SCI journals. His research focuses on ion-exchange chromatography, wastewater treatment and analysis, actuators and electrospinning.
Rajender Boddula PhD is currently working for the Chinese Academy of Sciences President's International Fellowship Initiative (CAS-PIFI) at the National Center for Nanoscience and Technology (NCNST, Beijing). His academic honors include multiple fellowships and scholarships, and he has published many scientific articles in international peer-reviewed journals, edited books with numerous publishers and has authored 20 book chapters.
Tariq Altalhi PhD is Head of the Department of Chemistry and Vice Dean of Science College at Taif University, Saudi Arabia. He received his PhD from the University of Adelaide, Australia in 2014. His research interests include developing advanced chemistry-based solutions for solid and liquid municipal waste management, converting plastic bags to carbon nanotubes, and fly ash to efficient adsorbent material.
Content
Preface xxiii
1 Natural Polysaccharides From Aloe vera L. Gel (Aloe barbadensis Miller): Processing Techniques and Analytical Methods 1 Silvana Teresa Lacerda Jales, Raquel de Melo Barbosa, Girliane Regina da Silva, Patricia Severino and Tulio Flávio Accioly de Lima Moura
1.1 Introduction 2
1.1.1 Gel Composition from A. vera 3
1.2 Applications of A. vera Mucilaginous Gel or Fractions 5
1.3 Aloe vera Gel Processing 5
1.3.1 Obtaining Polysaccharide Fraction or Acemannan 8
1.4 Analytical Methods Applied 9
1.4.1 Total Carbohydrates, Oligosaccharides, Acemannan and Free Sugars 9
1.4.2 Analytical Techniques 12
1.4.2.1 Chromatography Analysis 12
1.4.2.2 Infrared Spectroscopy (IR) 13
1.4.2.3 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 14
1.4.2.4 Mass Spectrometry 15
1.4.2.5 Ultraviolet-Visible Spectroscopy 16
1.4.2.6 Comprehensive Microarray Polymer Profiling 16
1.5 Conclusion 17
References 17
2 Cell Wall Polysaccharides 23 Ata Ullah, Lutufur Rahman, Muhammad Bilal Yazdani, Muhammad Irfan, Waheed S. Khan and Asma Rehman
2.1 Introduction to Cell Wall 23
2.2 Plant Cell Wall Polysaccharides 24
2.2.1 Cellulose 24
2.2.2 Hemicellulose 25
2.2.2.1 Xyloglucan 25
2.2.2.2 Xylans 25
2.2.2.3 Mannans 26
2.2.3 Callose 26
2.2.4 Pectic Polysaccharides 26
2.2.4.1 Homogalacturonan (HG) 27
2.2.4.2 Arabinan 27
2.3 Algal Cell Wall Polysaccharides 28
2.3.1 Alginates 28
2.3.2 Sulfated Galactans 28
2.3.3 Fucoidans 30
2.4 Fungal Cell Wall Polysaccharides 30
2.4.1 Glucan 31
2.4.2 Chitin and Chitosan 31
2.5 Bacterial Cell Wall Polysaccharides 32
2.5.1 Peptidoglycan 32
2.5.2 Lipopolysaccharides 33
References 33
3 Marine Polysaccharides: Properties and Applications 37 Tonmoy Ghosh, Rabinder Singh, Asha Arumugam Nesamma and Pannaga Pavan Jutur
3.1 Introduction 37
3.2 Polysaccharide Origins 38
3.3 Properties 38
3.3.1 Cellulose 38
3.3.2 Chitosan 40
3.3.3 Alginate 41
3.3.4 Carrageenan 41
3.3.5 Agar 41
3.3.6 Porphyran 42
3.3.7 Fucoidan 42
3.3.8 Ulvan 42
3.3.9 Exopolysaccharides From Microalgae 43
3.4 Applications of Polysaccharides 44
3.4.1 Biomedical Applications 44
3.4.1.1 Cellulose 44
3.4.1.2 Chitosan 44
3.4.1.3 Alginate 45
3.4.2 Food Applications 45
3.4.2.1 Cellulose 45
3.4.2.2 Chitosan 46
3.4.2.3 Alginates 46
3.4.2.4 Carrageenan 47
3.4.2.5 Agar 47
3.4.3 Pharmaceutical and Nutraceutical Applications 47
3.4.3.1 Cellulose 47
3.4.3.2 Chitosan 47
3.4.3.3 Alginate 48
3.4.3.4 Carrageenan 48
3.4.3.5 Porphyran 49
3.4.3.6 Fucoidan 49
3.4.4 Agriculture 50
3.5 Conclusions 50
References 51
4 Seaweed Polysaccharides: Structure, Extraction and Applications 61 Oya Irmak Sahin
4.1 Introduction 61
4.1.1 Agar 62
4.1.2 Carrageenan 63
4.1.3 Alginate (Alginic Acid, Algin) 65
4.1.4 Fucoidan 67
4.1.5 Laminaran 68
4.1.6 Ulvan 69
4.2 Conclusion 70
References 70
5 Agars: Properties and Applications 75 Sudhakar Padmesh and Aditi Singh
5.1 History and Origin of Agar 75
5.1.1 Agarophytes Used in Agar Manufacturing 76
5.2 Physical Properties of Agar Producing Seaweeds 76
5.3 Agar Manufacturing 78
5.3.1 Types of Agar Manufacturing 78
5.3.1.1 Freeze-Thaw Method 78
5.3.1.2 Syneresis Method 78
5.4 Structure of Agar 79
5.5 Heterogeneity of Agar 80
5.6 Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Agar 80
5.7 Chemical Characteristics of Agar 82
5.8 Factors Influencing the Characteristics of Agar 83
5.8.1 Techniques to Analyze the Fine Chemical Structure of Agar 85
5.8.2 Synergies and Antagonisms of Agar Gels 86
5.9 Uses of Agar in Various Sectors 87
5.9.1 Applications of Agar in Food Industry 88
5.9.2 Application of Agar in Harvesting Insects and Worms 89
5.9.3 Vegetable Tissue Culture Formulations 90
5.9.4 Culture Media for Microbes 91
5.9.5 Industrial Applications of Agar 91
5.10 Conclusion and Discussion 91
References 92
6 Biopolysaccharides: Properties and Applications 95 Sinem Tunçer
6.1 Structure and Classification of Biopolysaccharides 95
6.1.1 Structure 95
6.1.2 Classification 97
6.1.3 Structural Characterization Techniques 98
6.2 Uses and Applications of Biopolysaccharides 99
6.2.1 Functional Fibers 100
6.2.2 Biomedicine 101
6.2.2.1 Tissue Engineering 102
6.2.2.2 Wound Healing 107
6.2.2.3 Drug Loading and Delivery 110
6.2.2.4 Therapeutics 114
6.2.3 Cosmetics 115
6.2.4 Foods and Food Ingredients 116
6.2.5 Biofuels 119
6.2.6 Wastewater Treatment 120
6.2.7 Textiles 121
6.3 Conclusion 122
References 123
7 Chitosan Derivatives: Properties and Applications 135 Gincy Marina Mathew, Sarah Bill Ulaeto, Reshmy R., Rajeev Kumar Sukumaran, Parameswaran Binod, Ashok Pandey and Raveendran Sindhu
7.1 Introduction 135
7.2 Properties of Chitosan Derivatives 142
7.2.1 Physiochemical Properties 142
7.2.2 Functional Properties 143
7.2.3 Biological Properties of Chitosan 144
7.3 Applications of Chitosan Derivatives 145
7.3.1 Anticancer Agents 145
7.3.2 Bone Tissue Material Formation 147
7.3.3 Wound Healing, Tissue Regeneration and Antimicrobial Resistance 148
7.3.4 Drug Delivery 149
7.3.5 Chromatographic Separations 150
7.3.6 Waste Management 150
7.3.7 Food Industry 151
7.3.8 In Cosmetics 152
7.3.9 In Paint as Antifouling Coatings 152
7.4 Conclusions 152
Acknowledgement 153
References 153
8 Green Seaweed Polysaccharides Inventory of Nador Lagoon in North East Morocco 163 El Asri Ouahid, Ramdani Mohamed and Fadlaoui Soufiane
8.1 Introduction 163
8.2 Nador Lagoon: Situation and Characteristics 164
8.3 Seaweed 165
8.4 Polysaccharides in Seaweed 166
8.5 Algae Polysaccharides in Nador Lagoon's Seaweed 167
8.5.1 C. prolifera 167
8.5.1.1 Sulfated Galactans 168
8.5.2 U. rigida & E. intestinalis 168
8.5.2.1 Ulvan 169
8.5.3 C. adhaerens, C. bursa, C. tomentosum 170
8.5.3.1 Sulfated Arabinans 170
8.5.3.2 Sulfated Arabinogalactans 170
8.5.3.3 Mannans 171
8.6 Conclusion 172
References 172
9 Salep Glucomannan: Properties and Applications 177 Abdullah Kurt
9.1 Introduction 177
9.2 Production 179
9.3 Composition and Physicochemical Structure 181
9.4 Rheological Properties 183
9.5 Purification and Deacetylation 188
9.6 Food Applications 191
9.6.1 Beverage 191
9.6.2 Ice Cream and Emulsion Stabilizing 192
9.6.3 Edible Film/Coating 194
9.6.4 Gelation 195
9.7 Health Benefits 196
9.8 Conclusions and Future Trends 197
References 198
10 Exudate Tree Gums: Properties and Applications 205 Aruna Jyothi Kora
10.1 Introduction 205
10.1.1 Gum Arabic 206
10.1.2 Gum Karaya 208
10.1.3 Gum Kondagogu 209
10.1.4 Gum Ghatti 209
10.1.5 Gum Tragacanth 210
10.1.6 Gum Olibanum 211
10.2 Nanobiotechnology Applications 211
10.3 Minor Tree Gums 214
10.4 Conclusions 214
Acknowledgment 217
References 218
11 Cellulose and its Derivatives: Properties and Applications 221 Rafael de Avila Delucis, Pedro Henrique Gonzalez de Cademartori, André Ricardo Fajardo and Sandro Campos Amico
11.1 Introduction 221
11.2 Main Raw Materials 222
11.3 Composition and Chemical Structure of Lignocellulosic Materials 224
11.4 Cellulose: Chemical Backbone and Crystalline Formats 225
11.5 Cellulose Extraction 228
11.5.1 Mechanical Methods 228
11.5.2 Chemical Methods 231
11.6 Cellulose Products and its Derivatives 232
11.7 Main Applications 236
11.8 Conclusion 241
References 242
12 Starch and its Derivatives: Properties and Applications 253 Bhanita Goswami and Debajyoti Mahanta
12.1 Introduction 253
12.2 Physicochemical and Functional Properties of Starch 254
12.2.1 Size, Morphology and Crystallinity of Starch Granules 255
12.2.2 Physical Properties due to Associated Lipids, Proteins and Phosphorus With Starch Granules 257
12.2.3 Solubility and Swelling Capacity of Starch 257
12.2.4 Gelatinization and Retrogradation of Starch 258
12.2.5 Birefringence and Glass Transition Temperature of Starch 259
12.2.6 Rheological and Thermal Properties of Starch 260
12.2.7 Transmittance and Opacity of Starch 260
12.2.8 Melt Processability of Starch 261
12.3 Modification of Starch 261
12.3.1 Physical Modification of Starch 262
12.3.2 Chemical Modification of Starch 263
12.3.3 Dual Modification of Starch 265
12.3.4 Enzymatic Modification of Starch 265
12.3.5 Genetic Modification of Starch 265
12.4 Application of Starch and its Derivatives 266
12.4.1 In Food Industry 266
12.4.2 In Paper Industry 266
12.4.3 Starch as Binders 267
12.4.4 In Detergent Products 267
12.4.5 As Biodegradable Thermoplastic Materials or Bioplastics 267
12.4.6 In Pharmaceutical and Cosmetic Industries 268
12.4.7 As Industrial Raw Materials 269
12.4.8 As Adsorbents for Environmental Applications 269
12.4.9 As Food Packaging Materials 269
12.4.10 In Drug Delivery 270
12.4.11 As Antimicrobial Films and Coatings 270
12.4.12 In Advanced Functional Materials 271
12.5 Conclusion 273
References 274
13 Crystallization of Polysaccharides 283 Mohsen Khodadadi Yazdi, Farzad Seidi, Yongcan Jin, Payam Zarrintaj, Huining Xiao, Amin Esmaeili, Sajjad Habibzadeh and Mohammad Reza Saeb
13.1 Introduction 283
13.2 Principles of Crystallization of Polysaccharides 285
13.3 Techniques for Crystallinity Measurement 287
13.4 Crystallization Behavior of Polysaccharides 287
13.4.1 Cellulose 287
13.4.2 Chitosan and Chitin 290
13.4.3 Starch 291
13.5 Polymer/Polysaccharide Crystalline Nanocomposites 293
13.6 Conclusion 293
References 294
14 Polysaccharides as Novel Materials for Tissue Engineering Applications 301 Nandini A. Pattanashetti, Anand I. Torvi, Arun K. Shettar, Pramod B. Gai and Mahadevappa Y. Kariduraganavar
14.1 Introduction 301
14.2 Types of Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering 303
14.3 Biomaterials for Tissue Engineering 304
14.4 Polysaccharide-Based Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering 305
14.4.1 Alginate-Based Scaffolds 306
14.4.2 Chitosan-Based Scaffolds 307
14.4.3 Cellulose-Based Scaffolds 309
14.4.4 Dextran and Pullulan-Based Scaffolds 310
14.4.5 Starch-Based Scaffolds 311
14.4.6 Xanthan-Based Scaffolds 312
14.4.7 Glycosaminoglycans-Based Scaffolds 313
14.5 Current Challenges and Future Perspectives 316
Acknowledgements 317
References 317
15 Structure and Solubility of Polysaccharides 325 Vickramjeet Singh, Shikha Indoria, K.J. Jisha and Ramesh L. Gardas
15.1 Introduction 325
15.2 Polysaccharide Structure and Solubility in Water 326
15.3 Solubility and Molecular Weight 329
15.4 Solubility and Branching 330
15.5 Polysaccharide Solutions 332
15.6 Conclusions 334
Acknowledgments 334
References 334
16 Polysaccharides: An Efficient Tool for Fabrication of Carbon Nanomaterials 337 Yuliya Dzyazko and Vladimir Ogenko
16.1 Introduction 337
16.2 Aerogels 338
16.2.1 Plant and Bacterial Cellulose 339
16.2.2 Carbon Derived From Nanocrystalline Cellulose of Plant Origin 344
16.2.3 Carbon Aerogels Produced From Bacterial Cellulose 348
16.2.4 Chitosan and Sodium Alginate for Preparation of Carbon Aerogels 350
16.3 Graphene-Like Materials and Nanotubes Produced From Polysaccharides 352
16.4 Biocarbon Quantum Dots 355
16.5 Membranes Containing Carbon Nanoparticles Derived From Cellulose 356
16.6 Conclusions 358
References 358
17 Rheology and Structural Properties of Polysaccharides 367 Andreea Irina Barzic
17.1 Introduction 367
17.2 General Structural Features of Polysaccharides 368
17.3 Main Types of Polysaccharides and Their Structural Properties 370
17.4 Rheological Behavior of Polysaccharides 374
17.4.1 Semi-Diluted and Concentrated Solutions of Polysaccharides 374
17.4.2 Gels of Polysaccharides 375
17.4.3 Polysaccharide Liquid Crystals 377
17.5 Conclusions 379
References 379
18 Gums-Based Bionanostructures for Medical Applications 385 Hira Munir, Muhammad Bilal, Muhammad Imran Khan and Hafiz M.N. Iqbal
18.1 Plants and Their Bioactive Compounds 386
18.2 Natural Gums-Physicochemical Features 386
18.3 Sources of Natural Gums 387
18.3.1 Exudate Gums 387
18.3.2 Mucilages 387
18.3.3 Seaweed Polysaccharides 388
18.3.4 Microbial Polysaccharides 388
18.3.5 Animal Polysaccharide 388
18.3.6 Other Sources of Polysaccharide Gums 388
18.4 Classification of Gums 388
18.4.1 According to the Charge 388
18.4.2 According to the Source 389
18.4.3 According to Shape 389
18.4.4 According to Monomeric Units in Chemical Structure 389
18.4.5 Semi-Synthetic Gums 390
18.5 Composition of Natural Gums 390
18.6 Extraction and Purification of Natural Gums 390
18.7 Modification and Hydrolysis of Natural Gums 390
18.8 Medical Applications of Gums-Based Bio-Nanostructures 390
18.8.1 Conductive Adhesive Properties and Pharmaceutical Applications 391
18.8.2 Application in Imaging and Cell Studies 393
18.8.3 Application in Sutures 393
18.8.4 Biomaterials for Implantation 394
18.9 Conclusions 395
References 395
19 Alginates: Properties and Applications 399 Sapna Raghav, Pallavi Jain and Dinesh Kumar
19.1 Introduction 399
19.2 Properties of Sodium Alginate (Na-Alg) 400
19.2.1 Thickening Property of Alginates 401
19.2.2 Gelling Property of Alginates 401
19.2.3 Film-Forming Property 402
19.2.4 Lipophilicity 402
19.2.5 Solubility 402
19.2.6 pH Sensitivity 402
19.3 Chemical Properties 402
19.4 Applications 403
19.4.1 Bone Tissue Engineering 404
19.4.2 Pharmaceutical Applications 405
19.4.2.1 Small Chemical Drug Delivery 405
19.4.2.2 Protein Delivery 406
19.4.3 Wound Dressing 406
19.4.4 Vaccine Delivery 408
19.4.5 Water Treatment Application 410
19.4.6 Alginate for Anion Removal 410
19.5 Conclusions and Prospects 414
Acknowledgments 414
Abbreviations 414
References 414
20 Marine Polysaccharides: Properties and Applications 423 Olugbenga Samuel Michael, Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji, Ayodele Eugene Ayeni, Muhammad Akram, Inamuddin, Juliana Bunmi Adetunji, Mathew Olaniyan and Musa Abidemi Muhibi
20.1 Introduction 424
20.2 Marine Bacteria That Produce Polysaccharides 425
20.3 Marine Fungi That Produce Polysaccharide 431
20.4 Production, Extraction and Purification of Polysaccharides 431
20.4.1 Solid State Fermentation 432
20.4.2 Submerged Fermentation 432
20.4.3 Extraction and Purification of Polysaccharides 432
20.5 Characterization via Molecular, Biochemical and Cultural Characterization of Marine Polysaccharides 433
20.6 Conclusion and Future Recommendation to Knowledge 434
References 434
21 Polysaccharides: Promising Constituent for the Preparation of Nanomaterials 441 Rafeeya Shams, Quratul Eain Hyder Rizvi, Aamir Hussain Dar, Ishrat Majid, Shafat Ahmad Khan and Anurag Singh
21.1 Introduction 441
21.1.1 Classification and Types of Nanomaterials 442
21.2 Preparation of Polysaccharide-Dependent Nanomaterials 445
21.2.1 Electrospinning 445
21.2.2 Dip Coating, Film Casting, and Physical Mixing 446
21.2.3 Layer by Layer Assembly 447
21.2.4 Ionotropic Gelation, Colloidal Assembly and Coprecipitation 447
21.2.5 In Situ NP Preparation 447
21.2.6 Ionotropic Gelation 448
21.3 Biocompatibility of Carbon-Based Nanomaterials 451
21.4 Conclusions and Summary 452
References 452
22 Anticancer Potential of Polysaccharides 459 Ali Raza, Javed Iqbal, Muhammad Usman Munir, Anila Asif and Arsalan Ahmed
22.1 Introduction 459
22.2 Mode of Action 460
22.2.1 Cell-Cycle Arrest 460
22.2.2 Receptor 460
22.2.3 Immunomodulatory Effect 461
22.2.4 Chemotherapy Enhancement 461
22.2.5 Mitochondrial Membrane Inhibition 461
22.2.6 Free Radicals Capture 462
22.3 Polysaccharides in Cancer Treatment 462
22.3.1 Lung Cancer 463
22.3.2 Blood Cancer 464
22.3.3 Liver Cancer 465
22.3.4 Gastric and Colon Cancer 465
22.3.5 Bladder and Kidney Cancer 466
22.3.6 Breast Cancer 466
22.3.7 Cervical Cancer 467
22.4 Polysaccharides in Conventional Therapies 468
22.4.1 Chemotherapy 468
22.4.2 Radiotherapy 469
22.4.3 Surgery 469
22.4.4 Phototherapy 469
22.4.5 Drug Delivery 469
22.4.6 Bioimaging 470
22.4.7 Food Supplement 470
22.5 Concluding Remarks and Future Trends 471
References 471
23 Polysaccharide-Based Membrane for Packaging Applications 477 Saumya Pandey
23.1 Introduction 477
23.2 Polysaccharides as Biomaterials for Biodegradable Packaging 478
23.2.1 Polysaccharides Extracted From Animals 481
23.2.1.1 Chitin and Chitosan 481
23.2.2 Polysaccharides Extracted From Plants 481
23.2.2.1 Cellulose 481
23.2.2.2 Pectin 482
23.2.2.3 Starch 483
23.2.2.4 Galactomannans 484
23.2.3 Polysaccharides Extracted From Algae 484
23.2.3.1 Carrageenan 484
23.2.3.2 Alginate 484
23.2.4 Polysaccharides Synthesized by Microorganisms 485
23.2.4.1 Pullulan 485
23.2.4.2 Gellan Gum 485
23.2.4.3 Xanthan Gum 486
23.2.4.4 FucoPol 486
23.3 Properties of Polysaccharide-Based Packaging Film or Coating 486
23.3.1 Barrier Properties of Film or Coatings 486
23.3.2 Mechanical Properties of the Film 488
23.4 Polysaccharides-Based Nanocomposites Packaging 489
23.5 Polysaccharides-Based Films and Coatings in Food Packaging Applications 490
23.5.1 Food Preservation and Self-Life Extension 490
23.5.2 Antimicrobial Coating 490
23.5.3 Delaying of Post-Harvest Ripening 491
23.5.4 Restoring Color, Aroma and Nutritional Value 491
23.5.5 Antioxidant Properties 491
23.6 Conclusion and Prospects 492
References 493
24 Applications of Polysaccharides in Cancer Treatment 501 Nivedita Pujari S., Joy Hoskeri H., Anand I. Torvi and Arun K. Shettar
24.1 Introduction 501
24.2 Types of Polysaccharides Used in Cancer Treatment 502
24.2.1 Animal Polysaccharides 502
24.2.2 Vegetal Polysaccharides 503
24.2.3 Microorganism and Fungi Polysaccharides 503
24.3 Mechanism of Polysaccharides as Anticancer Agent 504
24.3.1 Actions of Polysaccharides as Immunological Functioning 504
24.3.2 Role of Polysaccharides in Cell Signaling 505
24.3.3 Effect of Polysaccharides in Apoptosis and Cell Cycle Arrest 506
24.3.4 Antitumor Effect of Polysaccharides 506
24.4 Usage of Polysaccharides in Preclinical and Clinical Models of Cancer 507
24.4.1 In-Vitro Cell Line Model 507
24.4.2 Polysaccharides as Antitumor/Anticancer in Animal Model Study 508
24.4.3 Clinical Trials of Polysaccharides in Cancer Treatment 508
24.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 510
References 510
25 Application of Chitosan-Based Catalysts for Heterocycles Synthesis and Other Reactions 517 Yadavalli Venkata Durga Nageswar, Nelson L.C. Domingues, Ramesh Katla and Rakhi Katla
25.1 Introduction 517
25.2 Recent Research Reports 518
25.2.1 Furans 518
25.2.2 Pyrazoles 518
25.2.3 Imidazoles 519
25.2.4 Oxazoles 520
25.2.5 Thiazoles 521
25.2.6 Triazoles 522
25.2.7 Tetrazoles 523
25.2.8 Pyridines 524
25.2.9 Quinolines 524
25.2.10 Pyrazines 525
25.2.11 Pyrimidines 525
25.2.12 Quinazolines 527
25.2.13 Phthalazines 527
25.2.14 Perimidines 527
25.2.15 Pyrans 528
25.2.16 Coumarins 530
25.2.17 Chromenes 530
25.2.18 Other Reactions 531
25.2.18.1 Oxidations 531
25.2.18.2 Reductions 533
25.2.18.3 Coupling/Condensation Reactions 533
25.2.18.4 Isomerization 537
25.2.18.5 Ring Opening 538
25.3 Conclusion 538
References 539
26 Preparation and Applications of Polysaccharide-Based Composites 543 Sadaf Ahmad, Bushra Anees Palvasha, Bakar bin Khatab Abbasi, Muhammad Shahid Nazir, Majid Niaz Akhtar, Zaman Tahir and Mohd Azmuddin Abdullah
26.1 Introduction 544
26.2 Types 544
26.2.1 Cellulose 544
26.2.2 Starch 545
26.2.3 Glycogen 545
26.2.4 Chitin 545
26.2.5 Pectin 546
26.3 Importance 546
26.4 Fabrication and Applications of Polysaccharide-Inorganic-Based Composites 547
26.4.1 Cellulose-Inorganic Materials 547
26.4.2 Starch-Inorganic Materials 553
26.4.3 Pectin-Inorganic Materials 557
26.4.4 Chitin and Chitosan-Inorganic Materials 559
26.4.5 Polysaccharides-Metal Organic Frameworks 561
26.5 Recent Applications 564
26.6 Conclusion 565
References 566
27 Polysaccharide-Based Liquid Crystals 573 Sumaira Saleem, Gulzar Muhammad, Muhammad Mudassir Iqbal, Muhammad Ajaz Hussain, Muhammad Arshad Raza, Zahid Shafiq and Haseeba Razzaq
27.1 Introduction 573
27.2 Polysaccharides-Based Liquid Crystals 575
27.2.1 Cellulose-Based Liquid Crystals 575
27.2.2 Liquid Crystals From Cellulose Derivatives 578
27.2.3 Amylose-Based Liquid Crystals 579
27.2.4 Dextrin-Based Liquid Crystals 582
27.2.5 Chitin-Based Liquid Crystals 584
27.2.6 Schizophyllan-Based Liquid Crystals 585
27.3 Conclusion 586
References 586
28 Patents on Polysaccharide Applications 591 Nadhratun Naiim Mobarak, Sharifah Nabihah Syed Jaafar and Mohamad Azuwa Mohamed
28.1 Introduction 591
28.2 Polysaccharides in Medical Application 595
28.3 Polysaccharides in Cosmetic Application 597
28.4 Polysaccharides in Battery Components 600
28.5 Polysaccharides in Paper Manufacture 601
28.6 Conclusion 601
References 602
29 Applications of Polysaccharides in Controlled Release Drug Delivery System 607 Muhammad Harris Shoaib, Muhammad Sikandar, Farrukh Rafiq Ahmed, Fatima Ramzan Ali, Faaiza Qazi, Rabia Ismail Yousuf, Asma Irshad, Sabahat Jabeen and Kamran Ahmed
29.1 Introduction 607
29.2 Polysaccharides From Plant Sources and Their Derivatives 608
29.2.1 Cellulose 608
29.2.2 Cellulose Derivatives 609
29.2.2.1 Cellulose Ethers 609
29.2.2.2 Cellulose Esters 612
29.2.3 Hemicellulose 613
29.2.3.1 Mannans 614
29.2.4 Starch 617
29.2.5 Pectin 618
29.2.6 Lignin 619
29.2.7 Inulin 620
29.3 Gums 620
29.3.1 Exudate Gums 620
29.3.1.1 Gum Arabic (Gum Acacia) 620
29.3.1.2 Gum Tragacanth 621
29.3.1.3 Gum Karaya 621
29.3.2 Mucilage Gums 622
29.3.2.1 Okra Gum 622
29.3.2.2 Khaya Gum 622
29.3.2.3 Hakea Gum 622
29.3.2.4 Cassia tora Gum 623
29.3.2.5 Albizia Gum 623
29.3.2.6 Prunus cerasoides Gum 623
29.3.2.7 Tamarind Gum 623
29.3.2.8 Cissus populnea Gum 624
29.4 Polysaccharides From Algal Sources 624
29.4.1 Alginates 624
29.4.2 Galactans 626
29.4.3 Carrageenan 626
29.4.4 Agar 627
29.4.5 Agarose 628
29.5 Polysaccharides From Fungal Sources 629
29.5.1 Scleroglucan 629
29.5.2 Beta-Glucan 629
29.5.3 Pullulan 630
29.6 Polysaccharides From Animals Sources and Their Derivatives 631
29.6.1 Chitin 631
29.6.2 Chitosan 632
29.6.3 Hyaluronic Acid 633
29.6.4 Glycogen 633
29.6.5 Chondroitin Sulfate 633
29.6.6 Dermatan Sulfate 634
29.6.7 Gelatin 634
29.7 Polysaccharides From Microorganisms 635
29.7.1 Curdlan 635
29.7.2 Xanthan Gum 636
29.7.3 Gellan Gum 637
References 637
30 Applications of Polysaccharides in Nutrition and Medicine 657 Nivedita Pujari S., Arun K. Shettar and Joy Hoskeri H.
30.1 Introduction 657
30.2 Sources of Polysaccharides 658
30.2.1 Polysaccharides in Dietary Fibers 658
30.2.2 Polysaccharides in Plants 659
30.2.3 Polysaccharides in Algae and Lichens 659
30.2.4 Polysaccharides in Fungi 660
30.2.5 Polysaccharides From Bacteria 661
30.2.6 Polysaccharides From Other Sources 662
30.3 Role of Polysaccharides in Nutrition 662
30.3.1 Polysaccharides in Food 662
30.3.2 Polysaccharides as Energy Sources 663
30.3.3 Health Impact of Polysaccharides 664
30.3.4 Nutritional Aspect of Polysaccharides 664
30.4 Biomedical Applications of Polysaccharides 665
30.4.1 Polysaccharides as Antimicrobial and Antiviral 665
30.4.2 Polysaccharides as Antitumor/Anticancer 666
30.4.3 Polysaccharides as Anti-Obesity and Anti-Hypercholesterolemic Agents 667
30.4.4 Polysaccharides as Antidiabetic Agents 669
30.4.5 Polysaccharides as Immune Modulator Agent 670
30.4.6 Polysaccharides as Anti-Inflammatory Agent 671
30.4.7 Polysaccharides as Neuro-Protective Agent 672
30.4.8 Polysaccharides as a Source of Antioxidant 672
30.4.9 Polysaccharides in Wound Healing and Wound Dressing 673
30.5 Conclusion 674
References 674
31 Synthetic Polysaccharide-Based Vaccines: Progress and Achievements 683 Rafig Gurbanov
31.1 A Brief History of Vaccination 683
31.2 The Leverage of Synthetic Polysaccharide-Based Vaccines Over Natural Polysaccharide-Based Vaccines 684
31.3 The Principles of Synthetic Polysaccharide-Based Vaccines 686
31.3.1 Tumor Vaccines 689
31.3.2 Leishmaniasis Vaccines 690
31.3.3 Human Immunodeficiency Virus Vaccines 690
31.3.4 Bacterial Vaccines 691
31.4 The Opportunities and Prospects of Synthetic Polysaccharide-Based Vaccine Technologies 692
References 694
32 Polysaccharides Derived From Natural Sources: A Panacea to Health and Nutritional Challenges 701 Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji, Muhammad Akram, Olugbenga Samuel Michael, Khuram Shahzad, Ayodele Eugene Ayeni, Sidra Hasan, Juliana Bunmi Adetunji, Syed Muhammad Hasan, Inamuddin, Mathew Olaniyan and Musa Abidemi Muhibi
32.1 Introduction 702
32.2 Different Types of Polysaccharides Derived From Different Natural Sources
Preface
Polysaccharides are versatile and abundant biopolymers derived from natural resources which have emerged as a sustainable and eco-friendly alternative to conventional polymers or traditional plastics. Due to their unique properties, such as good stability, safety, low tox-icity, low cost, hydrophilicity, supramolecular structure, gelation ability, biodegradability and flexibility, polysaccharides have been the subject of multidisciplinary research in the fields of chemistry, physics, food science, materials science and biology. This book presents the entire spectrum of polysaccharide-related topics-from basic concepts to commercial market applications. The chapters cover various sources, classifications, properties, charac-terizations, processing methods, rheologies and fabrications of polysaccharide-based mate-rials and their composites and gels. Also covered are the applications of polysaccharides in cosmetics, food science, drug delivery, biomedicine, biofuel production, the applications, packaging, chromatography and environmental remediation. In addition to incorporating industrial applications and filling in the gap between exploratory works in the laboratory and viable applications in related ventures, this book also reviews the fabrication of inor-ganic and carbon nanomaterials from polysaccharides.
Since recent developments in the field are highlighted and real examples of polysaccha-rides in practice are provided along with key references, this book is an invaluable resource for both industry professionals and entrepreneurs in the field. As can be seen from the range of topics covered in the chapters summarized below, the book is also essential read-ing for industrialists, scientists, university professors, lecturers, researchers, doctoral and master students working in the fields of polymer science and technology, material science, chemistry, biology, and medicine.
Chapter 1 describes the composition of aloe vera mucilaginous gel, its major polysac-charides and their applications. The processes for obtaining the mucilaginous gel and its polysaccharide fractions, as well as the analytical methods applied for the quantification of total carbohydrates, oligosaccharides, acemannan, and free sugars are addressed.
Chapter 2 provides details about the cell wall of plant, algae, fungi and bacteria as the best reservoir of polysaccharides. Different types of polysaccharides like cellulose, hemi-cellulose and pectin representing the most prominent component of the cell wall are dis-cussed. Furthermore, various applications of polysaccharides in living organisms ranging from their structure to biological signaling are described. Additionally, various commercial applications of polysaccharides in pharmaceutical, paper, cosmetic and food industries are highlighted.
Chapter 3 primarily concentrates on the major marine polysaccharides, which in light of their diversity and complexity are addressed along with their underlying fundamental principles.
Chapter 4 provides details on the seaweed polysaccharides-agar, alginate, carrageenan, fucoidan, laminarin and ulvan-which have profound applications in food, pharmaceutical and many other chemical fields. Chemical structures and properties of polysaccharides are also discussed. Additionally, procedures for seaweed polysaccharides' extraction and appli-cation areas are presented in detail.
Chapter 5 deals with all aspects of polysaccharide. It also discusses variable methods to alter agar characteristics according to the type of work, the heterogeneity, synergies, physico-chemical and chemical properties along with mass spectroscopic, NMR, and XRD analyses.
Chapter 6 addresses the major properties and classifications of natural polysaccharides and deals with the applications of these green and sustainable resources in many different fields and industries, including biomedicine, food, cosmetics, textiles, wastewater treat-ment, and energy production.
Chapter 7 discusses the properties of chitosan enhanced by the addition of various functional groups. The understanding of chitosan derivatives for various biomedical, envi-ronmental, and food applications which can help in the development of other novel appli-cations are also discussed.
Chapter 8 discusses six different types of green seaweed containing a large amount of high-value polysaccharides (sulfated galactans, ulvan, sulfated arabinans, sulfated arab-inogalactans and mannans) in their biomass composition. Additionally, these extracted natural carbohydrates have important physiological and biological roles such as having anti-inflammatory, immunomodulation, antioxidant, anticoagulant, and anti-tumor effects in the human body.
Chapter 9 reveals the specific functional properties and nutritional value in the food applications of salep powder produced from tubers of the Orchidaceae family, an important glucomannan source. The production, cultivation, purification, deacetylation and depo-lymerization of glucomannan show new functional properties, which are summarized in detail.
Chapter 10 provides concise information on the properties and applications of exudate gums in different fields and industries, such as food, pharmaceutical, textile, paper, paint, cosmetic, nanobiotechnology, and non-food, due to their renewability, low cost, nontoxic-ity, biocompatibility and biodegradability. Also, minor tree gums and their applications are briefly covered.
Chapter 11 deals with cellulose types and configurations. Plant- and animal-based sources are listed and explained. Also, mechanical and chemical methods for plant decon-struction are discussed. Moreover, different cellulosic derivatives are discussed in detail, encompassing their properties and applications.
Chapter 12 provides a detailed discussion on starch structure, its physicochemical prop-erties and application of starch and its derivatives. Also, methods of starch modification are briefly discussed.
Chapter 13 discusses the crystallization behavior of polysaccharides and techniques used in the determination of their crystallization. Applications of crystalline polysaccharides for packaging and biomedical needs are specifically outlined.
Chapter 14 describes the significance of polysaccharides employed for tissue engi-neering applications. The principles involved, the biomaterials used, and different scaf-fold fabrication techniques employed are discussed. Emphasis is given to the applications of different polysaccharide-based scaffolds. The necessity to improve the efficiency of polysaccharide-based scaffolds is described.
Chapter 15 discusses the structure of polysaccharides and how structural integration plays a pivotal role in governing the polysaccharide dissolution in water. Polysaccharide solubility is explained based on various factors such as intermolecular forces, molecular weight, branching, and chemical modification of biopolymer.
Chapter 16 is devoted to nanomaterials, such as aerogels, graphene sponge, quantum dots and nanotubes, produced from natural polysaccharides: plant and bacterial cellulose, chitosan, and alginate. The effect of carbonization conditions on the morphology and func-tional properties of biocarbon is considered with a focus on the practical application of the nanomaterials.
Chapter 17 presents the main structural properties of the most relevant types of poly-saccharides. Significant investigations on the rheological behavior of polysaccharides and complex systems derived from them are discussed in regards to the polymer chemical structure, including the applicability of such materials.
Chapter 18 elaborates the use of novel gum-based nanocomposites with particular emphasis on their biomedical applications. In contrast to their synthetic counterparts, the naturally occurring gum polysaccharides and their derived nanostructured materials exhibit a range of applications in the biomedical sector owing to their exceptional struc-tures, physicochemical properties, and functionalities.
Chapter 19 discusses the crucial physical and chemical properties of alginate. It also summarizes the important applications of alginate in biomedical fields such as bone tissue engineering, and in pharmaceutical applications such as wound dressing, protein delivery, and delivery of vaccines.
Chapter 20 provides detailed information about the biological function, modes of action, and the application of marine-derived functional polysaccharide as a sustainable solution that could mitigate several challenges affecting mankind.
Chapter 21 discusses various polysaccharide-based nanostructured materials and nanoparticles and their importance in food industries. It also includes fabrication of nano- and microparticles using various methods such as electrospinning, dip coating, film cast-ing, and physical mixing, layer-by-layer assembly, colloidal assembly and co-precipitation, in-situ nanoparticles preparation and ionotropic gelation. The biocompatibility of carbon-based nanomaterials is also discussed.
Chapter 22 describes the anticancer potential of polysaccharides and their utilization in anticancer therapy. Several modes of action of polysaccharides to treat cancer are elab-orated. Also discussed are the applications of anticancer polysaccharides in different types of cancers and the anticancer effects of polysaccharides in traditional therapies such as chemotherapy.
Chapter 23 discusses the various sources of polysaccharides-based biomaterials and their properties that are beneficial for the development of membranes. The application of...
