Applied Water Science, Volume 2
Description
The second volume in a new two-volume set on applied water science, this book provides understanding, occurrence, identification, toxic effects and control of water pollutants in an aquatic environment using green chemistry protocols. The high rate of industrialization around the world has led to an increase in the rate of anthropogenic activities which involve the release of different types of contaminants into the aquatic environment. This generates high environmental risks, which could affect health and socio-economic activities if not treated properly. There is no doubt that the rapid progress in improving water quality and management has been motivated by the latest developments in green chemistry. Over the past decade, sources of water pollutants and the conventional methods used for the treatment of industrial wastewater treatment have flourished.
Water quality and its adequate availability have been a matter of concern worldwide particularly in developing countries. According to a World Health Organization (WHO) report, more than 80% of diseases are due to the consumption of contaminated water. Heavy metals are highly toxic and are a potential threat to water, soil, and air. Their consumption in higher concentrations gives hazardous outcomes. Water quality is usually measured in terms of chemical, physical, biological, and radiological standards. The discharge of effluent by industries contains heavy metals, hazardous chemicals, and a high amount of organic and inorganic impurities that can contaminate the water environment, and hence, human health. Therefore, it is our primary responsibility to maintain the water quality in our respective countries.
This book provides understanding, occurrence, identification, toxic effects and control of water pollutants in an aquatic environment using green chemistry protocols. It focuses on water remediation properties and processes including industry-scale water remediation technologies. This book covers recent literature on remediation technologies in preventing water contamination and its treatment. Chapters in this book discuss remediation of emerging pollutants using nanomaterials, polymers, advanced oxidation processes, membranes, and microalgae bioremediation, etc. It also includes photochemical, electrochemical, piezoacoustic, and ultrasound techniques. It is a unique reference guide for graduate students, faculties, researchers and industrialists working in the area of water science, environmental science, analytical chemistry, and chemical engineering.
This outstanding new volume:
* Provides an in-depth overview of remediation technologies in water science
* Is written by leading experts in the field
* Contains excellent, well-drafted chapters for beginners, graduate students, veteran engineers, and other experts alike
* Discusses current challenges and future perspectives in the field
Audience: This book is an invaluable guide to engineers, students, professors, scientists and R&D industrial specialists working in the fields of environmental science, geoscience, water science, physics and chemistry.
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Inamuddin, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Department of Applied Chemistry, Zakir Husain College of Engineering and Technology, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. He has extensive research experience in analytical chemistry, materials chemistry, electrochemistry, renewable energy, and environmental science. He has worked on different research projects funded by various government agencies and universities and is the recipient of multiple awards, including the Fast Track Young Scientist Award and the Young Researcher of the Year Award for 2020, from Aligarh Muslim University. He has published almost 200 research articles in various international scientific journals, 18 book chapters, and 120 edited books with multiple well-known publishers.
Mohd Imran Ahamed, PhD, is a research associate in the Department of Chemistry, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. He has published several research and review articles in various international scientific journals and has co-edited multiple books. His research work includes ion-exchange chromatography, wastewater treatment, and analysis, bending actuator and electrospinning.
Rajender Boddula, PhD, is currently working for the Chinese Academy of Sciences President's International Fellowship Initiative (CAS-PIFI) at the National Center for Nanoscience and Technology (NCNST, Beijing). His academic honors include multiple fellowships and scholarships, and he has published many scientific articles in international peer-reviewed journals. He also serves as an editorial board member and a referee for several reputed international peer-reviewed journals. He has published edited books with numerous publishers and has authored over 20 book chapters.
Tauseef Ahmad Rangreez, PhD, is a postdoctoral fellow at the National Institute of Technology, Srinagar, India. He completed his PhD in applied chemistry from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India, and worked as a project fellow under the University Grant Commission, India. He has published several research articles and co-edited books. His research interests include ion-exchange chromatography, development of nanocomposite sensors for heavy metals and biosensors.
Content
Preface xvii
1 Insights of the Removal of Antibiotics From Water and Wastewater: A Review on Physical, Chemical, and Biological Techniques 1
Ali Khadir, Amin M. Ramezanali, Shabnam Taghipour and Khadijeh Jafari
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Antibiotic Removal Methods 4
1.2.1 Aerobic Biological Treatment 4
1.2.2 Anaerobic Biological Treatment 8
1.2.3 Adsorption Processes 12
1.2.3.1 Activated Carbon and its Composites 12
1.2.3.2 Magnetic Nanomaterials/Adsorbents 15
1.2.4 Advanced Oxidation Processes 18
1.2.4.1 Fenton Type Processes 19
1.2.4.2 Peroxone 24
1.2.4.3 Photocatalytic Degradation 27
1.2.5 Electrocoagulation 30
1.3 Conclusion 32
References 33
2 Adsorption on Alternative Low-Cost Materials-Derived Adsorbents in Water Treatment 49
Wojciech Stawinski and Katarzyna Wal
2.1 Introduction 50
2.2 Water Treatment 50
2.3 Adsorption 51
2.4 Application of Low-Cost Waste-Based Adsorbents in Water Treatment 51
2.4.1 Bark 52
2.4.1.1 Eucalyptus 52
2.4.1.2 Pine 52
2.4.1.3 Other 55
2.4.2 Coffee 55
2.4.3 Feather 58
2.4.4 Husks or Hulls 60
2.4.4.1 Peanut 62
2.4.4.2 Rice 62
2.4.4.3 Other 63
2.4.5 Leaves 63
2.4.6 Peels 65
2.4.6.1 Banana 65
2.4.6.2 Citruses 67
2.4.6.3 Garlic 69
2.4.6.4 Litchi 70
2.4.6.5 Other 71
2.4.7 Rinds 71
2.4.8 Seeds 75
2.4.9 Stones or Pits 78
2.4.9.1 Date 78
2.4.9.2 Olive 81
2.4.9.3 Other 81
2.4.10 Tea 82
2.5 Disadvantages 84
2.6 Conclusions 86
References 86
3 Mathematical Modeling of Reactor for Water Remediation 107
Hamidreza Bagheri, Ali Mohebbi, Maryam Mirzaie and Vahab Ghalandari
3.1 Introduction 108
3.2 Water Remediation 109
3.2.1 Water Remediation Techniques 110
3.3 Reactor Modeling 112
3.3.1 Modeling of Multi-Phase Flows 118
3.3.2 Governing Equations for Multiphase Models 124
3.3.2.1 Photocatalytic Reactors 128
3.3.2.2 Bubble Column 132
3.3.2.3 Fluidized Bed Reactors 137
3.3.2.4 Adsorption Column 142
3.3.2.5 Air Sparging Technology 143
3.3.2.6 Electrochemical Reactors 146
3.4 Conclusions 154
References 156
4 Environmental Remediation Using Integrated MicrobialElectrochemical Wetlands: iMETLands 171
A. Biswas and S. Chakraborty
4.1 Introduction 172
4.2 Constructed Wetland-Microbial Fuel Cell (CW-MFC) System 174
4.2.1 Role of Redox Gradient 175
4.2.2 Role of Microorganisms 176
4.2.3 Role of WW Strength 176
4.2.4 Role of Wetland Vegetation 176
4.3 iMETLand State of the Art 177
4.3.1 iMETLand as a Potential Treatment Unit for Industrial Wastewater 184
4.4 Conclusion, Challenges and Future Directions 184
References 185
5 Forward Osmosis Membrane Technology for the Petroleum Industry Wastewater Treatment 191
Shahryar Jafarinejad and Nader Vahdat
5.1 Introduction 191
5.2 Forward Osmosis Membrane Process 192
5.2.1 Main Factors in FO Technology 193
5.3 FO Technology for the Petroleum Industry Wastewater Treatment 194
5.3.1 Literature Review of FO Technology for the Petroleum Industry Wastewater Treatment 194
5.3.2 Recent Advances in FO Membranes 205
5.4 Challenges Ahead and Future Perspectives 206
5.5 Conclusions 207
References 208
6 UV/Periodate Advanced Oxidation Process: Fundamentals and Applications 215
Slimane Merouani and Oualid Hamdaoui
6.1 Introduction 216
6.2 Periodate Speciation in Aqueous Solution 217
6.3 Generation of Reactive Species Upon UV-Photolysis of Periodate 218
6.4 Application of UV/IO-4 for Organics Degradation 223
6.5 Scavenging of the Reactive Species Under Laboratory Conditions 234
6.6 Factors Influencing the Degradation Process 236
6.6.1 Initial Periodate Concentration 236
6.6.2 Irradiation Intensity 237
6.6.3 Initial Pollutant Concentration 237
6.6.4 pH 238
6.6.5 Temperature 240
6.7 Advantages of UV/Periodate Process 240
6.8 Conclusion 241
Acknowledgements 242
References 242
7 Trends in Landfill Leachate Treatment Through Biological Biotechnology 249
Ali Khadir, Arman N. Ardestani, Mika Sillanpää and Shreya Mahajan
7.1 Introduction 250
7.2 Landfill Leachate Characteristics 252
7.3 Wastewater Treatment Techniques 255
7.4 Comparison of Aerobic and Anaerobic Processes 258
7.5 Different Biological Systems for Landfill Leachate Treatment 260
7.5.1 Aerobic Membrane Bioreactor 260
7.5.2 Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Reactors 263
7.5.3 Anaerobic Membrane Bioreactor 266
7.5.4 Sequencing Batch Reactor 267
7.5.5 Aerobic/Anaerobic/Facultative Lagoons 271
7.5.6 Trickling Filter 273
7.5.7 Rotating Biological Contactor 274
7.6 Conclusion 276
References 277
8 Metal-Organic Framework Nanoparticle Technology for Water Remediation: Road to a Sustainable Ecosystem 289
Rashmirekha Tripathy, Tejaswini Sahoo, Jagannath Panda, Madhuri Hembram, Saraswati Soren, C.K. Rath, Sunil Kumar Sahoo and Rojalin Sahu
8.1 Introduction to MOF Nanoparticles 290
8.2 MOFs for Decontamination of Water 291
8.2.1 Inorganic Contaminant 292
8.2.2 Nuclear Contaminants 293
8.2.3 Organic Contaminants 293
8.2.4 Sources of Heavy Metals in Water 294
8.3 Impact of MOFs for Remediation of Water 295
8.3.1 Applications of MOF Nanoparticles for Water Remediation 296
8.3.2 Adsorption By MOF Nanoparticles 298
8.3.3 Conventional Nanoparticles Used in Water Remediation 299
8.4 Removal of Organic Contaminant 303
8.4.1 Removal of Heavy Metal Ions 303
8.4.2 MOF Powder-Based Membrane for Organic Contaminants Removal 306
8.4.3 Photocatalytic Remediation of Water Using MOF Nanoparticles 307
8.5 MOF Nanoparticle Magnetic Iron-Based Technology for Water Remediation 307
8.5.1 Iron as a Remediation Tool 308
8.5.2 Research Needs and Limitations 310
8.6 Conclusions 311
References 311
9 Metal-Organic Frameworks for Heavy Metal Removal 321
Anam Asghar, Mustapha Mohammed Bello and Abdul Aziz Abdul Raman
9.1 Introduction 322
9.2 Heavy Metals in Environment 323
9.3 Heavy Metals Removal Technologies 325
9.3.1 Adsorption of Heavy Metals 326
9.3.2 Metal-Organic Frameworks as Adsorbent for Heavy Metals Removal 327
9.4 Applications of Metal-Organic Framework in Heavy Metals Removal 330
9.4.1 Mercury 330
9.4.2 Copper 336
9.4.3 Chromium 338
9.4.4 Lead 340
9.4.5 Arsenic 341
9.4.6 Cadmium 344
9.5 Conclusion 344
References 345
10 Microalgae-Based Bioremediation 357
Rosangela R. Dias, Mariany C. Deprá, Leila Q. Zepka and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes
10.1 Introduction to Microalgae-Based Bioremediation 357
10.2 Microalgae Bioremediation Mechanisms 358
10.3 Inorganic Pollutants Bioremediation 360
10.3.1 Heavy Metals 360
10.3.2 Greenhouse Gases 362
10.4 Organic Pollutants Bioremediation 363
10.4.1 Agrochemicals 363
10.4.2 Phthalate Esters (PAEs) 364
10.4.3 Tributyltin 365
10.4.4 Petroleum Hydrocarbons and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) 366
10.4.5 Trinitrotoluene 367
10.5 Emerging Pollutants Removal 368
10.5.1 Pharmaceutics 368
10.5.2 Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Compounds (PFAS) 370
10.6 Bioremediation Associated with the Bioproducts Production 370
10.7 Integrated Technology for Microalgae-Based Bioremediation 372
10.8 Conclusion 372
References 373
11 Photocatalytic Water Disinfection 381
Prachi Upadhyay and Sankar Chakma
11.1 Introduction 381
11.2 Techniques for Water Disinfection 383
11.2.1 Ozone and Ozone-Based Water Disinfection 384
11.2.2 H2O2/UV-Based Water Disinfection 386
11.2.3 Fenton-Based Water Disinfection 387
11.2.4 Sonolysis-Based Water Disinfection 388
11.2.5 Photocatalysis-Based Water Disinfection 390
11.2.6 Ultrasound/Ozone-Based Water Disinfection 394
11.2.7 Ultrasound/H2O2/UV-Based Water Disinfection 395
11.2.8 Ultrasound/Fenton/H2O2-Based Water Disinfection 395
11.2.9 Ultrasound/Photocatalysis-Based Water Disinfection 396
11.3 Conclusion 398
References 398
12 Phytoremediation and the Way Forward: Challenges and Opportunities 405
Shinomol George K. and Bhanu Revathi K.
12.1 Introduction 405
12.1.1 Bioremediation and Biosorption 406
12.1.2 Recent Developments in Bioremediation 408
12.2 Biosorbant for Phytoremediation 410
12.2.1 Algae and Weeds as Biosorbants 410
12.2.1.1 Removal of Chromium 411
12.2.1.2 Removal of Cadmium 412
12.2.1.3 Removal of Zinc 412
12.2.1.4 Removal of Copper 413
12.2.1.5 Removal of Strontium, Uranium and Lead 413
12.2.2 Agricultural Biomass as Biosorbents 414
12.2.2.1 Removal of Nickel and Chromium 415
12.2.2.2 Removal of Cadmium and Lead 416
12.2.2.3 Removal of Copper and Zinc 418
12.2.2.4 Removal of Other Metals: Fe (II), Mn(II), Va and Mo 419
12.2.2.5 Removal of Nickel and Cobalt 419
12.2.2.6 Removal of Uranium 420
12.2.2.7 Other Biomaterials 421
12.2.3 Biochar as Biosorbent 422
12.3 Soil Amendments for Enhancement of Bioremediation 423
12.4 Challenges & Future Prespectives 424
12.4.1 Future Perspectives 424
12.5 Conclusion 425
References 426
13 Sonochemistry for Water Remediation: Toward an Up-Scaled Continuous Technology 437
Kaouther Kerboua and Oualid Hamdaoui
13.1 Introduction 438
13.2 Water Remediation Technologies: The Place of Ultrasound and Sonochemistry 439
13.3 Continuous-Flow Sonochemistry: State-of-the-Art 456
13.4 Perspectives for an Up-Scaled Continuous Sonochemical Technology for Water Remediation 460
References 461
14 Advanced Oxidation Technologies for the Treatment of Wastewater 469
Pallavi Jain, Sapna Raghav and Dinesh Kumar
14.1 Introduction 469
14.2 Principle Involved 471
14.3 Advanced Oxidation Process 472
14.3.1 Fenton's Reagent 472
14.3.2 Peroxonation 474
14.3.3 Sonolysis 475
14.3.4 Ozonation 476
14.3.5 Ultraviolet Radiation-Based AOP 476
14.3.6 Photo-Fenton Process 477
14.3.7 Heterogeneous Photocatalysts 478
14.4 Perspectives and Recommendations 478
14.5 Conclusions 479
Acknowledgment 480
References 480
15 Application of Copper Oxide-Based Catalysts in Advanced Oxidation Processes 485
D. Mohammady Maklavany, Z. Rouzitalab, S. Jafarinejad, Y. Mohammadpourderakhshi and A. Rashidi
15.1 Introduction 485
15.2 An Overview of Catalytic AOPs 487
15.2.1 Fenton-Based Processes 487
15.2.2 Catalytic Ozonation 487
15.2.3 Heterogeneous Photocatalysis 489
15.2.4 Catalytic Wet Air Oxidation (CWAO) 490
15.2.5 Catalytic Supercritical Water Oxidation (CSCWO) 491
15.2.6 Persulfate Advanced Oxidation Processes (PS-AOPs) 491
15.3 Recent Advances in Copper Oxide-Based Catalysts 492
15.3.1 Morphologically Transformed Copper Oxide 493
15.3.2 Supported Copper Oxide (CuOx/Support) 494
15.3.3 Coupled Copper Oxide 496
15.3.4 Doped Copper Oxide (X-Doped CuOx) 497
15.4 Literature Review of Application of Copper Oxide-Based Catalysts for AOPs 499
15.4.1 Degradation of Dyes in Wastewater 499
15.4.2 Degradation of Pharmaceuticals in Wastewater 507
15.4.3 Degradation of Phenols in Wastewater 510
15.4.4 Degradation of Other Toxic Organic Compounds in Wastewater 514
15.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 514
Acknowlegments 516
References 516
16 Biochar-Based Sorbents for Sequestration of Pharmaceutical Compounds: Considering the Main Parameters in the Adsorption Process 527
Ali Khadir
16.1 Introduction 527
16.2 Adsorption Fundamentals 529
16.3 Effect of Various Parameters on Adsorption of Pharmaceuticals 530
16.3.1 Contact Time 530
16.3.2 Effect of Initial pH 533
16.3.3 Effect of Adsorbent Dosage 537
16.3.4 Effect of Temperature and Thermodynamic Parameters 537
16.4 Isotherm Models 542
16.5 Adsorption Kinetics 548
16.6 Conclusion 553
References 554
17 Bioremediation of Agricultural Wastewater 565
Shivani Garg, Nelson Pynadathu Rumjit, Paul Thomas and Chin Wei Lai
Abbreviations 565
17.1 Introduction 566
17.2 Sources of Agricultural Wastewater 566
17.3 Bioremediation Processes for Agricultural Wastewater Treatment 567
17.3.1 Biological Treatment Processes 568
17.3.1.1 Anaerobic Digestion Treatment 568
17.3.1.2 Aerobic Wastewater Treatment 570
17.3.2 Bioremediation of Pesticides 573
17.3.3 Constructed Wetlands 574
17.3.4 Riparian Buffer 575
17.4 Conclusion and Future Outlook 575
Acknowledgements 576
References 576
18 Remediation of Toxic Contaminants in Water Using Agricultural Waste 581
Arti Jain and Ritu Payal
18.1 Introduction 582
18.2 Components in Wastewater and Their Negative Impact 583
18.3 Techniques for Remediation of Wastewater 583
18.4 Agricultural Waste Materials 584
18.4.1 Orange Peel 585
18.4.2 Pomelo Peel 605
18.4.3 Grapefruit Peel (GFP) 605
18.4.4 Lemon Peels 605
18.4.5 Banana Peel 606
18.4.6 Jackfruit Peel 606
18.4.7 Cassava Peel 606
18.4.8 Pomegranate Peel 607
18.4.9 Garlic Peel 607
18.4.10 Palm Kernel Shell 607
18.4.11 Coconut Shell 607
18.4.12 Mangosteen 608
18.4.13 Rice Husk 608
18.4.14 Corncob 608
18.5 Agricultural Waste-Assisted Synthesis of Nanoparticles and Wastewater Remediation Through Nanoparticles 608
18.6 Adsorption Models for Adsorbents 609
18.6.1 Langmuir Isotherm 609
18.6.2 Freundlich Isotherm 610
18.7 Conclusions 611
References 611
19 Remediation of Emerging Pollutants by Using Advanced Biological Wastewater Treatments 623
S. Ghosh and S. Chakraborty
19.1 Introduction 624
19.2 Pharmaceutical Wastewater 626
19.2.1 Occurrence and Potential Threats 626
19.2.2 Advanced Biological Remediation 626
19.3 Pesticide Contaminated Wastewater 628
19.3.1 Source of Pollution With Environmental and Health Impacts 628
19.3.2 Advanced Biological Treatments 628
19.4 Surfactant Pollution 632
19.4.1 Source and Impacts of Pollution 632
19.4.2 Biological Remediation 632
19.5 Microplastic Pollution 634
19.5.1 Occurrence and Environmental Threats 634
19.5.2 Proposed Remediation Strategies 635
19.5.2.1 Microplastic Generation Source Control 635
19.5.2.2 Mitigation Policies 636
19.6 Endocrine Disrupters in Environment 636
19.7 Remedies for Endocrine Disrupters 637
19.8 Conclusion 637
Acknowledgement 638
References 638
Index 645
1
Insights of the Removal of Antibiotics From Water and Wastewater: A Review on Physical, Chemical, and Biological Techniques
Ali Khadir1*, Amin M. Ramezanali2, Shabnam Taghipour3 and Khadijeh Jafari4
1Young Researcher and Elite Club, Yadegar-e-Imam Khomeini (RAH) Shahre Rey Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
2School of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Abbaspour, Tehran, Iran
3Department of Civil Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
4Environmental Science and Technology Research Center, Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Shahid Sadoughi University of Medical Sciences, Yazd, Iran
Abstract
Pharmaceuticals, particularly antibiotics, are rightly regarded as one of the major emerging contaminants of the environment and there is increasing concern over their continuous presence in the aqueous solutions. Extensive research has shown that these compounds have been detected in fresh water of many countries. In this chapter, a brief introduction on pharmaceuticals and antibiotic pollution and also different common methods for antibiotic abatement in aqueous solutions has been studied. The performance of technologies such as membrane bioreactors, aerobic granular sludge, activated carbons, magnetic nanoparticles, Fenton processes, Peroxone, photocatalytic degradation, and electrocoagulation has also been discussed. Each method has its own advantages and disadvantages in which at present no sole system might be the best one.
Keywords: Pharmaceuticals, antibiotic, treatment, pollution, water, wastewater
1.1 Introduction
Drugs and their related compounds have been initially utilized to treat living creatures and since their discovery they have rescued lives of many people and animals. In fact, living without drugs seems to be impossible, particularly under present situation that humans are dealing with wide range of contaminants during their daily life. However, rapid population growth, continuous agricultural and industrial development, and establishment of countless pharmaceutical companies have made drugs as a hazardous health components for ecosystem [1,2]. Briefly, these compounds are persistent, recalcitrant, and toxic and many organisms are not able to metabolize and adsorb such compounds [1]. Effluent and wastes by pharmaceutical manufacturing companies, municipal wastewaters, and human/animal excretion are of the main pathways of pharmaceutical compounds entrance the environment [3,4]. Approximately 50-80, 80-90, and 15-30% of ciprofloxacin, tetracycline and sulfamethoxazole are excreted through urine and feces, respectively [5,6]. Unfortunately, present wastewater treatment plants could not remove pharmaceutical completely because of the lack of facilities and technologies. It must be considered that wastewater treatment plants act an integral role for pollution release unless they have proper treatment technique [7,8]. Fernández-López et al. [9] investigated the removal of four pharmaceuticals in different five treatment plants (Figure 1.1), and they reported that they have detected the target pollutants in the both influent and effluent of the treatment plants. Carbamazepine and naproxen were the most abundant compounds. Palli et al. [10] also found that pharmaceuticals were detected in the influent of wastewater treatment plants of Tuscany (Italy) in which acetaminophen (3,914 ± 2,620 ng/L), diclofenac (2,065 ± 739 ng/L) and amoxicillin (2,002 ± 2,170 ng/L) were the most concentrated followed by atenolol, ketoprofen, clarithromycin, carbamazepine, doxycycline and 17-ß-estradiol. Their finding declared that some components had been removed well, but some of the others have exhibited partly elimination. Bagnis et al. [11] observations showed that wastewater, landfill leachate and agriculture were the sources of the presence of pharmaceuticals in Nairobi river. Considering these results, pharmaceuticals are generally detected in the effluent of conventional wastewater treatment plants, and to prevent the pollution spread, a full recognition of these system along with other advanced ones are vitally important.
Generally, pharmaceuticals are categorized into different classes including analgesics, antibiotics, psychiatric drugs, anti-hypertensives, beta-blockers, hormones, contrast media, anti-diabetics, anti-viral, and anti-cancer drugs. Among antibiotics, antimicrobial drugs leading to bacterial growth inhibition, are important environmental pollutants due to their huge consumption. From 2000 to 2010, global antibiotic consumption promoted by 36%, signifying a forthcoming serious environmental issue [12]. Previous studies have confirmed that approximately 70 antibiotics have been detected in various media such as waters, soil, and sediment [13-16]. According to the available reports, in fresh waters of many countries such as Ghana, South Africa, Kenya, Nigeria, Mozambique, USA, Brazil, Canada, Latin America, Australia, Iran, China, Taiwan, Japan, Korea, UK. France, Spain, Germany, Italy, etc. antibiotic compound have been detected, indicating that antibiotic pollution may dominate the entire world, requiring nation and international plans to cease their future consequences [6]. Toxicity, persistence, carcinogenicity, DNA damage and lymphocyte mutagenicity, increasing human allergy, lower biodegradability, spread of antibiotics resistance bacteria and causing undesirable effects on humans and animals are some of the main hazardous side effects of the antibiotic spread [17-19]. Thus, it is obligatory to implement proper treatment systems to prevent further antibiotic release in the ecosystem.
Figure 1.1 The schematic system of various treatment systems. Reprinted and reproduced with permission from Ref. [9].
Different treatment methods which have been applied for treatment of oily wastewaters are antibiotic contaminated waters include biological, chemical, and physical processes. In biological treatment (aerobic and anaerobic) microorganisms are employed to treat wastewater under the presence or absent of oxygen. Activated sludge is one of the oldest bioreactor that has fluctuations in the removal efficiency of persistent compounds. Chemical methods such as advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) often decompose antibiotics into simpler molecules but this technology is very complex and expensive. However, it has generally high removal efficiency under appropriate operation. Physical techniques are one of the most effective methods of removing antibiotics from aquatic environments. Owing to generation of less toxic byproducts and low operational costs, adsorption is considered as a simple, practical, and effective method among other physical processes. In recent years, combination of several methods has been developed to increase the removal efficiency however these methods require further scrutiny to optimize the process. Considering both antibiotic pollution and treatment methods, the aim of present chapter, is studying application of various technology for antibiotics pollution abatement from aqueous solutions.
1.2 Antibiotic Removal Methods
1.2.1 Aerobic Biological Treatment
Aerobic wastewater treatment involves using oxygen for degradation of the soluble and colloidal organic matters into carbon dioxide, ammonia, energy, water, and new cells by means of heterotrophic and autotrophic microorganisms. Heterotrophs are organisms that require organic carbon supply for growth, and those which utilize inorganic carbon such as carbon dioxide are known as autotrophic microorganisms. A mix of these organisms as a unite culture can degrade compounds effectively. Since supplying oxygen is costly, aerobic processes are feasible if the COD of the input wastewaters is less than 1,000 mg/L [20,21]. In high-strength effluent such as industrial wastewater (e.g. pharmaceutical companies effluents), a hybrid system of anaerobic/aerobic could bring satisfactory results in terms of organic matters removal.
After the advent of membrane processes in 1960s like microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, and reverse osmosis, the development of membrane bioreactors (MBRs) were of great attention. MBRs are hybrid bioreactors of membrane filtration and activated sludge, using a physical- biological treatment system which are effective for municipal and industrial wastewaters [22]. Figure 1.2 illustrates the schematic of two configurations of MBRs which are side-stream MBR and submerged MBR. The main benefits of MBRs over activated sludge processes are their less required space for operation and also their ability to eliminate distinctive compositions of wastewaters [23]. Bentmen et al. [24] proved that MBR effluent has better quality than single activated sludge process and the mean BOD, COD, and turbidity removal was greater than 90% [25]. Sahar et al. (2011) found that MBRs could result in about 15-42% higher removal efficiency in comparison to conventional activated sludge [9]. In the drug production centers using MBR technology for the treatment of their wastewater, high removal of COD and BOD has been reported [23]. For example, with a capacity of 1 m3/day for MBR operated at a pharmaceutical center in Taiwan, 95% COD and 99% BOD were eliminated. The initial values of COD and BOD were 800-11,800 and 100-6,350 mg/L, respectively [26]. Song et al. [27] successfully used biofilm MBRs for simultaneous...
