
Fracking
Description
Alles über E-Books | Antworten auf Fragen rund um E-Books, Kopierschutz und Dateiformate finden Sie in unserem Info- & Hilfebereich.
More details
Other editions
Additional editions

Person
Michael D. Holloway has worked in industry for 35 years in research and development, technical marketing, equipment reliability and sales. He has written books on spend analysis, specification development, failure interpretation as well as process plant equipment operations, control, and reliability, the Dictionary of Industrial Terms and recently a bestseller on Hydraulic Fracturing. He holds a BS in chemistry, a BA in philosophy and a MS in engineering. Holloway is a Certified Lubrication Specialist (CLS), Oil Monitoring Analyst (OMA I) through Society of Tribology and Lubrication Engineers, a Level I Machinery Lubrication Technician (MLT I) and a Machinery Lubrication Analyst (MLA I) through International Council for Machinery Lubrication as well as an elected member of the Russian Academy of Natural Science.
Content
Preface xv
An Introduction to Hydraulic Fracturing xvii
1 Environmental Impact - Reality and Myth and Nero Did Not Fiddle While Rome Burned 1
1.1 The Tower of Babel and How it Could be the Cause of Much of the Fracking Debate 2
2 Production Development 5
3 Fractures: Their Orientation and Length 11
3.1 Fracture Orientation 11
3.2 Fracture Length/ Height 13
4 Casing and Cementing 15
4.1 Blowouts 16
4.2 Surface Blowouts 17
4.3 Subsurface Blowouts 17
4.4 Horizontal Drilling 18
4.5 Fracturing and the Groundwater Debate 18
5 Pre-Drill Assessments 19
5.1 Basis of Design 21
6 Well Construction 23
6.1 Drilling 23
6.2 Completion 26
7 Well Operations 29
7.1 Well Plug and Abandonment "P&A" 30
7.2 Considerations 30
8 Failure and Contamination Reduction 43
8.1 Conduct Environmental Sampling Before and During Operations 43
8.2 Disclose the Chemicals Being Used in Fracking Operations 44
8.3 Ensure that Wellbore Casings are Properly Designed and Constructed 44
8.4 Eliminate Venting and Work Toward Green Completions 44
8.5 Prevent Flowback Spillage/Leaks 45
8.6 Dispose/Recycle Flowback Properly 45
8.7 Minimize Noise and Dust 45
8.8 Protect Workers and Drivers 46
8.9 Communicate and Engage 46
8.10 Record and Document 47
9 Frack Fluids and Composition 49
9.1 Uses and Needs for Frack Fluids 50
9.2 Common Fracturing Additives 50
9.3 Typical Percentages of Commonly Used Additives 53
9.4 Proppants 53
9.5 Silica Sand 55
9.6 Resin Coated Proppant 57
9.7 Manufactured Ceramics Proppants 58
9.8 Additional Types 58
9.9 Slickwater 59
10 So Where Do the Frack Fluids Go? 61
11 Common Objections to Drilling Operations 63
11.1 Noise 64
11.2 Changes in Landscape and Beauty of Surroundings 65
11.3 Increased Traffic 66
11.4 Subsurface Contamination of Ground Water 67
11.5 Impacts on Water Wells 67
11.6 Water Analysis 67
11.7 Types of Methane and What They Show Us 70
11.8 Biogenic 71
11.9 Thermogenic 71
11.10 Possible Causes of Methane in Water Wells 71
11.11 Surface Water and Soil Impacts 72
11.12 Spill Preparation and Documentation 72
11.13 Other Surface Impacts 73
11.14 Land Use Permitting 73
11.15 Water Usage and Management 74
11.16 Flowback Water 74
11.17 Produced Water 75
11.18 Flowback and Produced Water Management 76
11.19 Geological Shifts 76
11.20 Induced Seismic Event 77
11.21 Wastewater Disposal Wells 78
11.22 Site Remediation 78
11.23 Regulatory Oversight 78
11.24 Federal Level Oversight 79
11.25 State Level Oversight 79
11.26 Municipal Level Oversight 80
11.27 Examples of Legislation and Regulations 80
11.28 Frack Fluid Makeup Reporting 81
11.29 FracFocus 82
11.30 Atmospheric Emissions 83
12 Air Emissions Controls 85
12.1 Common Sources of Air Emissions 87
12.2 Fugitive Air Emissions 88
12.3 Silica Dust Exposure 89
12.4 Stationary Sources 89
12.5 The Clean Air Act 90
12.6 Regulated Pollutants 90
12.7 NAAQS Criteria Pollutants 91
12.8 Attainment Versus Non-attainment 91
12.9 Types of Federal Regulations 92
12.10 MACT/NESHAP HAPs 92
12.11 NSPS Regulations: 40 CFR Part 60 92
12.12 NSPS Subpart OOOO 93
12.13 Facilities/Activities Affected by NSPS OOOO 93
12.14 Other Types of Federal NSPS and NESHAP/MACT Regulations 95
12.15 NSPS Subpart IIII 95
12.16 NSPS Subpart JJJJ 95
12.17 NSPS Subpart KKK 95
12.18 MACT Subpart HH and Subpart HHH 95
12.19 MACT Subpart ZZZZ 96
12.20 Construction and Operating New Source Review Permits 96
12.21 Title V Permits 96
13 Chemicals and Products on Locations 99
13.1 Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) 102
13.2 Contents of an MSDS 103
13.3 Product Identification 104
13.4 Hazardous Ingredients of Mixtures 104
13.5 Physical Data 105
13.6 Fire and Explosion Hazard Data 106
13.7 Health Hazard Data 106
13.8 Emergency and First Aid Procedures 107
13.9 Reactivity Data 107
13.10 Spill, Leak, and Disposal Procedures 107
13.11 Personal Protection Information 108
13.12 HCS 2012 Safety Data Sheets (SDS) 117
14 Public Perception, the Media, and the Facts 123
14.1 Regulation or Policy Topics: Media Coverage and Public Perception 128
15 Notes from the Field 137
15.1 Going Forward 150
16 Migration of Hydrocarbon Gases 153
16.1 Introduction 153
16.2 Geochemical Exploration for Petroleum 154
16.3 Primary and Secondary Migration of Hydrocarbons 157
16.3.1 Primary Gas Migration 157
16.3.2 Secondary Gas Migration 159
16.3.3 Gas Entrapment 159
16.4 Origin of Migrating Hydrocarbon Gases 161
16.4.1 Biogenic vs. Thermogenic Gas 161
16.4.1.1 Sources of Migrating Gases 161
16.4.1.2 Biogenic Methane 162
16.4.1.3 Thermogenic Methane Gas 165
16.4.2 Isotopic Values of Gases 167
16.4.3 Nonhydrocarbon Gases 168
16.4.4 Mixing of Gases 170
16.4.5 Surface Gas Sampling 172
16.4.6 Summary 172
16.5 Driving Force of Gas Movement 174
16.5.1 Density of a Hydrocarbon Gas under Pressure 174
16.5.2 Sample Problem (Courtesy of Gulf Publishing Company) 176
16.5.3 Other Methods of Computing Natural Gas Compressibility 177
16.5.4 Density of Water 181
16.5.5 Petrophysical Parameters Affecting Gas Migration 183
16.5.6 Porosity, Void Ratio, and Density 184
16.5.7 Permeability 188
16.5.8 Free and Dissolved Gas in Fluid 189
16.5.9 Quantity of Dissolved Gas in Water 191
16.6 Types of Gas Migration 192
16.6.1 Molecular Diffusion Mechanism 193
16.6.2 Discontinuous-Phase Migration of Gas 195
16.6.3 Minimum Height of Gas Column Necessary to Initiate Upward Gas Movement 198
16.6.4 Buoyant Flow 199
16.6.5 Sample Problem (Courtesy of Gulf Publishing Company) 200
16.6.6 Gas Columns 201
16.6.7 Sample Problem 2.2 (Courtesy of Gulf Publishing Company) 203
16.6.8 Continuous-Phase Gas Migration 204
16.7 Paths of Gas Migration Associated with Oilwells 207
16.7.1 Natural Paths of Gas Migration 209
16.7.2 Man-Made Paths of Gas Migration (boreholes) 211
16.7.3 Creation of Induced Fractures during Drilling 213
16.8 Wells Leaking Due to Cementing Failure 217
16.8.1 Breakdown of Cement 217
16.8.2 Cement Isolation Breakdown (Shrinkage-Circumferential Fractures) 217
16.8.3 Improper Placement of Cement 220
16.9 Environmental Hazards of Gas Migration 222
16.9.1 Explosive Nature of Gas 222
16.9.2 Toxicity of Hydrocarbon Gas 224
16.10 Migration of Gas from Petroleum Wellbores 227
16.10.1 Effect of Seismic Activity 228
16.11 Case Histories of Gas Migration Problems 228
16.11.1 Inglewood Oilfield, CA 230
16.11.2 Los Angeles City Oilfield, CA 231
16.11.2.1 Belmont High School Construction 233
16.11.3 Montebello Oilfield, CA 234
16.11.3.1 Montebello Underground Gas Storage 234
16.11.4 Playa Del Rey Oilfield, CA 235
16.11.4.1 Playa Del Rey underground Gas Storage 235
16.11.5 Salt Lake Oilfield, CA 238
16.11.5.1 Ross Dress for Less Department Store Explosion/Fire, Los Angeles, CA 238
16.11.5.2 Gilmore Bank 240
16.11.5.3 South Salt Lake Oilfield Gas Seeps from Gas Injection Project 241
16.11.5.4 Wilshire and Curson Gas Seep, Los Angeles, CA, 1999 241
16.11.6 Santa Fe Springs Oilfield, CA 241
16.11.7 El Segundo Oilfield, CA 244
16.11.8 Honor Rancho and Tapia Oilfields, CA 244
16.11.9 Sylmar, CA - Tunnel Explosion 244
16.11.10 Hutchinson, KS - Explosion and Fires 247
16.11.11 Huntsman Gas Storage, NE 247
16.11.12 Mont Belvieu Gas Storage Field, TX 248
16.11.13 Leroy Gas Storage Facility, WY 248
16.12 Conclusions 249
References and Bibliography 252
17 Subsidence as a Result of Gas/Oil/Water Production 261
17.1 Introduction 261
17.2 Theoretical Compaction Models 264
17.3 Theoretical Modeling of Compaction 270
17.3.1 Terzaghi's Compaction Model 272
17.3.2 Athy's Compaction Model 274
17.3.3 Hedberg's Compaction Model 275
17.3.4 Weller's Compaction Model 275
17.3.5 Teodorovich and Chernov's Compaction Model 276
17.3.6 Beall's Compaction Model 277
17.3.7 Katz and Ibrahim Compaction Model 277
17.4 Subsidence Over Oilfields 279
17.4.1 Rate of Subsidence 281
17.4.2 Effect of Earthquakes on Subsidence 282
17.4.3 Stress and Strain Distribution in Subsiding Areas 283
17.4.4 Calculation of Subsidence in Oilfields 286
17.4.5 Permeability Seals for Confined Aquifers 289
17.4.6 Fissures Caused by Subsidence 290
17.5 Case Studies of Subsidence over Hydrocarbon Reservoirs 292
17.5.1 Los Angeles Basin, CA, Oilfields, Inglewood Oilfield, CA 292
17.5.1.1 Baldwin Hills Dam Failure 294
17.5.1.2 Proposed Housing Development 297
17.5.2 Los Angeles City Oilfield, CA 297
17.5.2.1 Belmont High School Construction 297
17.5.3 Playa Del Rey Oilfield, CA 299
17.5.3.1 Playa Del Rey Marina Subsidence 299
17.5.4 Torrance Oilfield, CA 301
17.5.5 Redondo Beach Marina Area, CA 302
17.5.6 Salt Lake Oilfield, CA 303
17.5.7 Santa Fe Springs Oilfield, CA 305
17.5.8 Wilmington Oilfield, Long Beach, CA 306
17.5.9 North Stavropol Oilfield, Russia 318
17.5.10 Subsidence over Venezuelan Oilfields 324
17.5.10.1 Subsidence in the Bolivar Coastal Oilfields of Venezuela 325
17.5.10.2 Subsidence of Facilities 328
17.5.11 Po-Veneto Plain, Italy 335
17.5.11.1 Po Delta 336
17.5.12 Subsidence Over the North Sea Ekofisk Oilfield 343
17.5.12.1 Production 345
17.5.12.2 Ekofisk Field Description 346
17.5.12.3 Enhanced Oil Recovery Projects 348
17.5.13 Platform Sinking 348
17.6 Concluding Remarks 350
References and Bibliography 351
18 Effect of Emission of CO2 and CH4 into the Atmosphere 361
18.1 Introduction 361
18.2 Historic Geologic Evidence 363
18.2.1 Historic Record of Earth's Global Temperature 363
18.2.2 Effect of Atmospheric Carbon Content on Global Temperature 366
18.2.3 Sources of CO2 370
18.3 Adiabatic Theory 373
18.3.1 Modeling the Planet Earth 373
18.3.2 Modeling the Planet Venus 375
18.3.3 Anthropogenic Carbon Effect on the Earth's Global Temperature 380
18.3.4 Methane Gas Emissions 383
18.3.5 Monitoring of Methane Gas Emissions 385
References 385
19 Fracking in the USA 389
Appendix A: Chemicals Used in Fracking 729
Appendix B: State Agency Web Addresses 907
Bibliography: 911
Index 913
An Introduction to Hydraulic Fracturing
On March 24, 1989, the Exxon Valdez ran into a reef and spilled over 30,000,000 gallons of crude oil into Prince William Sound, Alaska. The spill is considered to be one of the most devastating environmental disasters. The reason for the spill was due to crew deployment mistakes and failed collision avoidance systems.
On April 20, 2010, the Deepwater Horizon experienced a wellhead blowout resulting in an oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico considered to be the largest accidental marine oil spill in the history of the petroleum industry. The accident claimed 11 souls and countless marine animals and wasted an estimated 1,960,000,000 gallons of crude oil. According to a federal commission, the reason for the failure was attributed to defective cement curing of the well.
These incidents have been burned into our collective memories and will be forever used as examples of just how important safety and environmental aspects are in the petroleum industry. Surprisingly, these disasters are not the most devastating environmental incidents that have occurred in the past 100 years. In fact, they don't even rank in the top ten.
Consider the Baia Mare Cyanide spill which occurred in Romania on January 30, 2000, which killed over 100 people and contaminated millions of gallons of water. Consider the methyl isocyanate chemical leak in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India on the night of December 2-3, 1984. The accident claimed 2,259 casualties, and crippled the Union Carbide Corporation. We all remember Love Canal, Three Mile Island, Chernobyl, and Fukushima. All were considerable disasters as well, yet if you combine all these tragedies, they still do not equal the environmental and human toll of the Great Smog of 1952. How many of us have heard of the Great Smog of '52?
On December 5, 1952, in London, England, a combination of cold temperatures, lack of wind and increased particulate pollution due to increased coal burning produced a heavy blanket of smog pollution that covered London for four days. It was determined that 12,000 people had died prematurely and 200,000 more were made ill because of the smog's effects. In 1956, the Clean Air Act was put into effect due to the Great Smog of '52. It was only after this catastrophe that action was taken. What if we were to put safeguards in place prior to an incident? That is exactly what the petroleum industry has done with the practice of hydraulic fracturing or fracking.
In today's society, it is easy for organizations - be it the general media, political groups, local organizations, unions, or religious associations - to spread their beliefs to the public and push whatever agenda or ideals they may have. These beliefs could be successfully put forward with good intentions, successfully put forth with bad intentions, or, in many cases, put forward with good intentions, but have a negative result. Sadly, it seems human nature dictates that the first opinion heard or the opinion heard the loudest and with the most hyperbole will be what the public comes to believe. In time, once something is believed by enough people and stated as "fact" long enough, the general public will no longer even bother looking into facts, and it will become part of the fabric of beliefs in our society - for instance, a few examples of this phenomenon are: 1) one, in fact, cannot see the Great Wall of China from the moon (not even close); 2) the Sherlock Holmes character never once said "Elementary, my dear Watson"; and 3) Nero didn't play the violin while his city burned; the violin wasn't invented yet.
Now, upon reading this, the hope is that many will stop reading (but, of course, come back) to fact-check that what is written here is true. That is the purpose of this text - not to give opinions or try to sway beliefs, but to merely give facts and provide ample background knowledge to initiate further study. Following this and further study, one can make up his or her own educated opinion on fracking.
As far as hydraulic fracturing is concerned, the aspect given the most attention by press and most concerned organizations is its environmental impact. The question of environmental impact through fracking is, to say the least, a very emotional topic and by far the most polarizing issue; however, a great deal of analysis indicates that the most significant environmental risks attributed to fracking are similar to risks long associated with all drilling operations, including groundwater contamination due to inadequate cementing and/or well construction, risks associated with trucking, leaks from tanks and piping, and spills from waste handling. This all-encompassing blame has given industry all of the ammunition needed to claim that effects attributed to hydraulic fracturing are overstated, not based on good science, or related to processes other than hydraulic fracturing.
Due to the great ongoing controversy over alleged impacts from fracking, many public groups have become deeply suspicious of the trustworthiness and overall motives of the oil and gas industry. These suspicions are continuously intensified by two things:
- ongoing mistrust of data and findings due, in great part, to semantics; and
- by the industry initially refusing to disclose the chemical makeup of fracking fluids and the additives used to enhance hydraulic fracturing.
On December 3, 1952, the folks of London, England were kept warm due to the coal they burned on a windless, abnormally cold day. Their quest for comfort, control, and convenience led to disease and death but only because there was no consideration for the environment. The operation of fracking is one of the most regulated and controlled processes with regard to the environment. In the pages that follow, an examination of the operations and the environmental concerns of fracking shall be explored. It's important to consider, however, that due to hydraulic fracturing, the production of natural gas and even crude oil has been increased to the point that the United States is now in the position where it has higher productivity in manufacturing than China due to our reduced cost of energy. With Congressional approval, the United States is able to export crude oil and natural gas. Economically, the United States is poised to gain the position of energy and production independence. This would not have happened without fracking.
Now, consider the last concept. Burning natural gas in order to produce energy - for electricity or transportation - produces poison. Plain and simple. Yet without burning this hydrocarbon, life becomes very uncomfortable, and we give up control and convenience. Comfort, control, convenience are the cornerstones of human development and survival. We are not willing to give these up, and so we will suffer the consequences and are destined to eventually perish. Hydraulic fracturing has made it much easier to reach finality. So, if we are to do this, let us do it with the greatest opportunity of productivity with the minimal cost to the world. Fracking fits that bill.
Before the process and impact of hydraulic fracturing is explored, a few questions should be addressed. First, is fracking legal? The answer depends largely on location. For example, France has effectively banned the practice, both legislatively and judicially. Meanwhile, the UK is in the nascent stages of shale exploration and preliminary discussions regarding the regulations have begun. Many countries with shale gas prospects have yet to build out E&P infrastructure, and the questions of regulation and law have yet to be addressed. In the US, federal law regulates fracking when it comes to protecting clean air and water, and preventing the release of toxic substances and chemicals into the environment, but fracking is generally permitted by the federal government. That said, some US states have legislatively imposed moratoria (e.g. fracking is "illegal" in New York).
Second, is fracking safe? There is much to be said about the safety of the practice of hydraulic fracturing. This question is akin to asking, "Is driving a car safe?" Provided a person follows the rules of the road, has a valid driver's license, and is an experienced driver, then yes, driving a car can be considered safe. Unfortunately, there are companies and individuals who do not follow the proper protocols due to ignorance or malice (much the same as drivers) and this results in serious problems. In subsequent chapters, the topic of safety (both personal as well as environmental) will be deeply explored.
Among all industrial processes, fracking is the most hotly debated environmental and political issue. Advocates insist it is a safe and economical source of clean energy; critics, however, claim fracking can destroy drinking water supplies, pollute the air, and contribute to the greenhouse gases that cause global warming. Numerous studies have been conducted as to whether fracking is a safe process. Most of these studies have centered upon whether the practice yields water contamination. Additionally, one of the most oft-cited environmental concerns is methane emissions. One of the chief benefits of natural gas engines is its reduction in greenhouse gas emissions as compared to gasoline or diesel fuels. If methane leaks out of wells that are being fracked, one of the principal benefits of fracking is reduced or even eliminated, thereby decreasing the value of the technology to society.
Many fracking opponents have concerns regarding fresh water supply and drinking water contamination. Three EPA studies and a US...
System requirements
File format: ePUB
Copy protection: Adobe-DRM (Digital Rights Management)
System requirements:
- Computer (Windows; MacOS X; Linux): Install the free reader Adobe Digital Editions prior to download (see eBook Help).
- Tablet/smartphone (Android; iOS): Install the free app Adobe Digital Editions or the app PocketBook before downloading (see eBook Help).
- E-reader: Bookeen, Kobo, Pocketbook, Sony, Tolino and many more (not Kindle).
The file format ePub works well for novels and non-fiction books – i.e., „flowing” text without complex layout. On an e-reader or smartphone, line and page breaks automatically adjust to fit the small displays.
This eBook uses Adobe-DRM, a „hard” copy protection. If the necessary requirements are not met, unfortunately you will not be able to open the eBook. You will therefore need to prepare your reading hardware before downloading.
Please note: We strongly recommend that you authorise using your personal Adobe ID after installation of any reading software.
For more information, see our ebook Help page.