Chassis Handbook
Fundamentals, Driving Dynamics, Components, Mechatronics, Perspectives
Published on 9. November 2010
XXIV, 591 pages
978-3-8348-9789-3 (ISBN)
Description
Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Bernd Heißing is director of the Chair for Automotive Engineering at the Technical University of Munich. For almost 15 years, he held a managerial post in chassis development at Audi and is still additionally involved in numerous research projects and participates in congresses on chassis issues.
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Metin Ersoy completed his doctorate in Design Systematics at the Technical University of Braunschweig and spent more than 30 years at a managerial level at various companies, including 20 years at ZF Lemförder, where his most recent post was Head of Predevelopment. He is also an honorary professor for chassis technology at the University of Applied Sciences in Osnabrück.
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Metin Ersoy completed his doctorate in Design Systematics at the Technical University of Braunschweig and spent more than 30 years at a managerial level at various companies, including 20 years at ZF Lemförder, where his most recent post was Head of Predevelopment. He is also an honorary professor for chassis technology at the University of Applied Sciences in Osnabrück.
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Bernhard Heißing | Metin Ersoy
Chassis Handbook
Fundamentals, Driving Dynamics, Components, Mechatronics, Perspectives
Book
10/2010
1st Edition
Vieweg+Teubner Verlag
€353.09
Shipment within 10-15 days
Content
1 - Preface [Seite 5]
2 - Contributors [Seite 6]
3 - Contents [Seite 8]
4 - 1 Introduction and Fundamentals [Seite 23]
4.1 - 1.1 History, Definition, Function, and Significance [Seite 24]
4.1.1 - 1.1.1 History [Seite 24]
4.1.2 - 1.1.2 Definition and Scope [Seite 29]
4.1.3 - 1.1.3 Purpose and Significance [Seite 30]
4.2 - 1.2 Chassis Design [Seite 31]
4.2.1 - 1.2.1 Vehicle Classification [Seite 31]
4.2.2 - 1.2.2 Powertrain Configurations [Seite 32]
4.2.3 - 1.2.3 Chassis Composition [Seite 35]
4.2.4 - 1.2.4 Trends in Chassis Composition [Seite 35]
4.3 - 1.3 Chassis Layout [Seite 37]
4.3.1 - 1.3.1 Chassis Requirements [Seite 38]
4.3.2 - 1.3.2 Layout of Suspension Kinematics [Seite 40]
4.3.3 - 1.3.3 Suspension Kinematics [Seite 40]
4.3.3.1 - 1.3.3.1 Suspension Parameters Relative to Vehicle [Seite 40]
4.3.3.2 - 1.3.3.2 Roll and Pitch Center [Seite 42]
4.3.3.3 - 1.3.3.3 Wheel Travel [Seite 42]
4.3.3.4 - 1.3.3.4 Wheel Travel Parameters [Seite 43]
4.3.3.5 - 1.3.3.5 Steering Kinematic Parameters [Seite 46]
4.3.3.6 - 1.3.3.6 Kinematic Parameters of Current Vehicles [Seite 50]
4.3.3.7 - 1.3.3.7 Wheel Travel Curves [Seite 50]
4.3.3.8 - 1.3.3.8 Wheel Kinematic Calculation Software [Seite 53]
4.3.4 - 1.3.4 Elastokinematics and Component Compliances in Suspension Design [Seite 53]
4.3.5 - 1.3.5 Target Parameter Values [Seite 54]
4.3.6 - 1.3.6 Suspension Composition [Seite 55]
5 - 2 Driving Dynamics [Seite 57]
5.1 - 2.1 Driving Resistances and Energy Requirements [Seite 57]
5.1.1 - 2.1.1 Driving Resistances [Seite 57]
5.1.1.1 - 2.1.1.1 Rolling Resistance [Seite 57]
5.1.1.2 - 2.1.1.2 Effect of Road Surface on Rolling Resistance FR,Tr [Seite 62]
5.1.1.3 - 2.1.1.3 Aerodynamic Drag FA [Seite 65]
5.1.1.4 - 2.1.1.4 Climbing Resistance FC [Seite 66]
5.1.1.5 - 2.1.1.5 Inertial Resistance FI [Seite 67]
5.1.1.6 - 2.1.1.6 Total Driving Resistance [Seite 68]
5.1.2 - 2.1.2 Crosswind Response Behavior [Seite 68]
5.1.3 - 2.1.3 Performance and Energy Requirements [Seite 71]
5.1.4 - 2.1.4 Fuel Consumption [Seite 72]
5.2 - 2.2 Tire Traction and Force Transfer to the Roadway [Seite 74]
5.2.1 - 2.2.1 The Physics of Tire Traction and Force Transfer [Seite 76]
5.2.1.1 - 2.2.1.1 Acceleration and Braking [Seite 79]
5.2.1.2 - 2.2.1.2 Cornering [Seite 80]
5.2.2 - 2.2.2 Detailed Tire Forces [Seite 85]
5.3 - 2.3 Longitudinal Dynamics [Seite 87]
5.3.1 - 2.3.1 Acceleration and Braking [Seite 87]
5.3.1.1 - 2.3.1.1 Anti-Dive [Seite 87]
5.3.1.2 - 2.3.1.2 Anti-Lift (Anti-Squat) [Seite 88]
5.3.1.3 - 2.3.1.3 Load Changes During Straightline Driving [Seite 89]
5.4 - 2.4 Vertical Dynamics [Seite 89]
5.4.1 - 2.4.1 Springs [Seite 89]
5.4.1.1 - 2.4.1.1 Spring Ratio [Seite 90]
5.4.1.2 - 2.4.1.2 Natural (Eigen) Frequencies [Seite 90]
5.4.2 - 2.4.2 Vibration Dampers [Seite 91]
5.4.3 - 2.4.3 Excitations from the Roadway [Seite 92]
5.4.3.1 - 2.4.3.1 Harmonic Excitations [Seite 92]
5.4.3.2 - 2.4.3.2 Periodic Irregularities [Seite 93]
5.4.3.3 - 2.4.3.3 Stochastic (Random) Irregularities [Seite 93]
5.4.3.4 - 2.4.3.4 Spectral Density of Road Surface Irregularities [Seite 94]
5.4.3.5 - 2.4.3.5 Measured Road Surface Irregularities [Seite 95]
5.4.4 - 2.4.4 Tires as Spring/Damper Elements [Seite 95]
5.4.5 - 2.4.5 Suspension Models [Seite 96]
5.4.5.1 - 2.4.5.1 Single-Mass System [Seite 96]
5.4.5.2 - 2.4.5.2 Dual-Mass System [Seite 97]
5.4.5.3 - 2.4.5.3 Expansion of the Model to Include Seat Suspension Effects [Seite 97]
5.4.5.4 - 2.4.5.4 Single-Track Suspension Model [Seite 98]
5.4.5.5 - 2.4.5.5 Two-Track Suspension Model [Seite 99]
5.4.6 - 2.4.6 Parameter Variation [Seite 101]
5.4.7 - 2.4.7 The Roadway/Vehicle Connection [Seite 103]
5.4.7.1 - 2.4.7.1 Spectral Density of Vehicle Body Accelerations [Seite 104]
5.4.7.2 - 2.4.7.2 Spectral Density of Dynamic Wheel Loads [Seite 106]
5.4.8 - 2.4.8 Human Oscillation Evaluation [Seite 106]
5.4.9 - 2.4.9 Conclusions from the Fundamentalsof Vertical Dynamics [Seite 108]
5.5 - 2.5 Lateral Dynamics [Seite 108]
5.5.1 - 2.5.1 Handling Requirements [Seite 108]
5.5.2 - 2.5.2 Steering Kinematics [Seite 109]
5.5.2.1 - 2.5.2.1 Static Steering Layout [Seite 109]
5.5.2.2 - 2.5.2.2 Dynamic Steering Layout [Seite 110]
5.5.3 - 2.5.3 Vehicle Modeling [Seite 111]
5.5.3.1 - 2.5.3.1 Simple Single-Track (Bicycle) Model [Seite 111]
5.5.3.2 - 2.5.3.2 Simple Vehicle Dynamics [Seite 112]
5.5.3.3 - 2.5.3.3 Understeer and Oversteer [Seite 115]
5.5.3.4 - 2.5.3.4 Expanded Single-Track Model with Rear-Wheel Steering [Seite 116]
5.5.3.5 - 2.5.3.5 Nonlinear Single-Track Model [Seite 117]
5.5.3.6 - 2.5.3.6 Analysis of Transient Behavior Using the Simple Single-Track Model [Seite 119]
5.5.3.7 - 2.5.3.7 The Vehicle as Part of a Closed-Loop System [Seite 121]
5.5.3.8 - 2.5.3.8 Dynamic Behavior of the Vehicle as Part of a Closed-Loop System [Seite 122]
5.5.3.9 - 2.5.3.9 Slip Angle Compensation Using Rear-Wheel Steering [Seite 125]
5.5.3.10 - 2.5.3.10 Investigation of Frequency Response for Varied Vehicle Configurations [Seite 127]
5.5.3.11 - 2.5.3.11 Dual-Track Model [Seite 128]
5.5.3.12 - 2.5.3.12 Parameter Variation [Seite 131]
5.6 - 2.6 General Vehicle Dynamics [Seite 135]
5.6.1 - 2.6.1 Interactions between Vertical, Longitudinal, and Lateral Dynamics [Seite 135]
5.7 - 2.7 Chassis Control Systems [Seite 140]
5.7.1 - 2.7.1 Definition of Terms [Seite 140]
5.7.2 - 2.7.2 Limitations of the Passive Vehicle - Basic Goal Conflicts [Seite 140]
5.7.3 - 2.7.3 The Driver-Vehicle Control Loop [Seite 141]
5.7.4 - 2.7.4 Division of Chassis Control Systems into Domains [Seite 142]
5.7.4.1 - 2.7.4.1 Longitudinal Dynamics [Seite 142]
5.7.4.2 - 2.7.4.2 Lateral Dynamics [Seite 143]
5.7.4.3 - 2.7.4.3 Vertical Dynamics [Seite 143]
5.7.5 - 2.7.5 Requirements for Chassis Control Systems [Seite 143]
5.8 - 2.8 Handling Characteristics [Seite 144]
5.8.1 - 2.8.1 Handling Evaluation [Seite 144]
5.8.2 - 2.8.2 Driving Maneuvers [Seite 146]
5.8.3 - 2.8.3 Parameter Range of Maneuvers [Seite 146]
5.8.4 - 2.8.4 Tuning Procedures [Seite 149]
5.8.4.1 - 2.8.4.1 Tuning Procedures forSteady-State Steering Behavior [Seite 149]
5.8.5 - 2.8.5 Subjective Handling Evaluation [Seite 149]
5.8.5.1 - 2.8.5.1 Evaluation Methods and Representation [Seite 152]
5.8.5.2 - 2.8.5.2 Acceleration (Driveoff) Behavior [Seite 152]
5.8.5.3 - 2.8.5.3 Braking Behavior [Seite 152]
5.8.5.4 - 2.8.5.4 Steering Behavior [Seite 154]
5.8.5.5 - 2.8.5.5 Cornering Behavior [Seite 156]
5.8.5.6 - 2.8.5.6 Straightline Driving Behavior [Seite 156]
5.8.5.7 - 2.8.5.7 Ride Comfort [Seite 158]
5.8.6 - 2.8.6 Objective Handling Evaluations [Seite 159]
5.8.6.1 - 2.8.6.1 Measurement Parameters [Seite 159]
5.8.6.2 - 2.8.6.2 Acceleration (Driveoff) Behavior [Seite 159]
5.8.6.3 - 2.8.6.3 Braking Behavior [Seite 160]
5.8.6.4 - 2.8.6.4 Steering Behavior [Seite 161]
5.8.6.5 - 2.8.6.5 Cornering Behavior [Seite 163]
5.8.6.6 - 2.8.6.6 Straightline Driving Behavior [Seite 165]
5.8.6.7 - 2.8.6.7 Ride Comfort [Seite 167]
5.9 - 2.9 Active and Passive Safety [Seite 167]
6 - 3 Chassis Components [Seite 170]
6.1 - 3.1 Chassis Structuring [Seite 170]
6.1.1 - 3.1.1 Classification by Function [Seite 170]
6.1.2 - 3.1.2 Modular Chassis Structure [Seite 171]
6.1.3 - 3.1.3 Chassis Components [Seite 171]
6.2 - 3.2 Drivetrain [Seite 172]
6.2.1 - 3.2.1 Configurations [Seite 172]
6.2.2 - 3.2.2 Axle Drives [Seite 172]
6.2.2.1 - 3.2.2.1 Differentials [Seite 172]
6.2.2.2 - 3.2.2.2 Locking Differentials [Seite 172]
6.2.2.3 - 3.2.2.3 Active Differentials [Seite 174]
6.2.2.4 - 3.2.2.4 Torque Vectoring [Seite 174]
6.2.3 - 3.2.3 Four-wheel-drive (All-wheel-drive) [Seite 175]
6.2.4 - 3.2.4 Control Strategies [Seite 176]
6.2.5 - 3.2.5 Half-shafts [Seite 177]
6.3 - 3.3 Wheel Brakes and Braking [Seite 178]
6.3.1 - 3.3.1 Fundamentals and Requirements [Seite 178]
6.3.2 - 3.3.2 Types of Braking Systems [Seite 179]
6.3.2.1 - 3.3.2.1 General Requirements [Seite 180]
6.3.3 - 3.3.3 Legal Regulations [Seite 181]
6.3.4 - 3.3.4 Brake System Design [Seite 181]
6.3.4.1 - 3.3.4.1 Brake Force Distribution [Seite 181]
6.3.4.2 - 3.3.4.2 Dimensioning [Seite 183]
6.3.5 - 3.3.5 Braking Torque and Dynamics [Seite 183]
6.3.5.1 - 3.3.5.1 Braking Torque [Seite 183]
6.3.5.2 - 3.3.5.2 Braking Dynamics [Seite 184]
6.3.6 - 3.3.6 Brake System Components [Seite 185]
6.3.6.1 - 3.3.6.1 Brake Calipers [Seite 185]
6.3.6.2 - 3.3.6.2 Brake Discs [Seite 189]
6.3.6.3 - 3.3.6.3 Brake Linings [Seite 190]
6.3.6.4 - 3.3.6.4 Drum Brakes [Seite 190]
6.3.6.5 - 3.3.6.5 Brake Fluid [Seite 193]
6.3.6.6 - 3.3.6.6 Brake Force Booster [Seite 193]
6.3.6.7 - 3.3.6.7 Tandem Master Cylinder [Seite 194]
6.3.6.8 - 3.3.6.8 Human-Machine Interface (HMI) [Seite 194]
6.3.7 - 3.3.7 Electronic Braking Control Systems [Seite 198]
6.3.7.1 - 3.3.7.1 Brake Assistant (MBA, EBA, HBA) [Seite 198]
6.3.7.2 - 3.3.7.2 Wheel Speed Sensors [Seite 201]
6.3.7.3 - 3.3.7.3 Electronic Braking System Functions [Seite 202]
6.3.7.4 - 3.3.7.4 Electrohydraulic Brake (EHB) [Seite 208]
6.3.7.5 - 3.3.7.5 Electromechanical Brake (EMB) [Seite 209]
6.3.7.6 - 3.3.7.6 Networked Chassis [Seite 211]
6.4 - 3.4 Steering Systems [Seite 212]
6.4.1 - 3.4.1 Requirements and Designs [Seite 212]
6.4.2 - 3.4.2 Hydraulic Rack and Pinion Steering [Seite 215]
6.4.2.1 - 3.4.2.1 Technology and Function [Seite 215]
6.4.2.2 - 3.4.2.2 Design and Components [Seite 218]
6.4.3 - 3.4.3 Steering Tie Rods [Seite 221]
6.4.4 - 3.4.4 Steering Driveline and Steering Column [Seite 224]
6.4.4.1 - 3.4.4.1 Components and Function Modules [Seite 224]
6.4.4.2 - 3.4.4.2 Design and Testing [Seite 226]
6.4.4.3 - 3.4.4.3 Crash Requirements and Energy Absorption Mechanisms [Seite 227]
6.4.4.4 - 3.4.4.4 Future Prospects and Modularization [Seite 230]
6.4.5 - 3.4.5 Electromechanical Steering Systems [Seite 230]
6.4.5.1 - 3.4.5.1 Design Concepts [Seite 230]
6.4.5.2 - 3.4.5.2 Configuration and Advantages [Seite 233]
6.4.6 - 3.4.6 Active Steering and Superposition Steering [Seite 236]
6.4.6.1 - 3.4.6.1 Functional Principles and Configuration [Seite 236]
6.4.6.2 - 3.4.6.2 Functions - Present and Future [Seite 238]
6.4.7 - 3.4.7 Rack and Pinion Power Steering with Torque and Angle Actuators [Seite 240]
6.4.8 - 3.4.8 Rear-wheel and Four-wheel Steering Systems [Seite 241]
6.4.9 - 3.4.9 Steer-by-wire and Single-wheel Steering Systems [Seite 243]
6.4.9.1 - 3.4.9.1 System Configuration and Components [Seite 244]
6.4.9.2 - 3.4.9.2 Technology, Advantages, Opportunities [Seite 246]
6.5 - 3.5 Springs and Stabilizers [Seite 247]
6.5.1 - 3.5.1 The Purpose of the Spring System [Seite 247]
6.5.2 - 3.5.2 Design and Calculation of Steel Springs [Seite 247]
6.5.2.1 - 3.5.2.1 Leaf Springs [Seite 248]
6.5.2.2 - 3.5.2.2 Torsion Bar Springs [Seite 251]
6.5.2.3 - 3.5.2.3 Stabilizers [Seite 252]
6.5.2.4 - 3.5.2.4 Coil Springs [Seite 260]
6.5.3 - 3.5.3 Spring Materials [Seite 268]
6.5.4 - 3.5.4 Steel Spring Manufacture [Seite 270]
6.5.4.1 - 3.5.4.1 Hot Forming [Seite 270]
6.5.4.2 - 3.5.4.2 Heat Treating Hot Formed Springs [Seite 272]
6.5.4.3 - 3.5.4.3 Cold Forming [Seite 272]
6.5.4.4 - 3.5.4.4 Shot Peening [Seite 273]
6.5.4.5 - 3.5.4.5 Plastification [Seite 274]
6.5.4.6 - 3.5.4.6 Corrosion Protection [Seite 274]
6.5.4.7 - 3.5.4.7 Final Inspection and Marking [Seite 275]
6.5.5 - 3.5.5 Roll Control Using Stabilizers [Seite 275]
6.5.5.1 - 3.5.5.1 Passive Stabilizers [Seite 275]
6.5.5.2 - 3.5.5.2 Switchable Off-Road Stabilizers [Seite 276]
6.5.5.3 - 3.5.5.3 Switchable On-Road Stabilizers [Seite 276]
6.5.5.4 - 3.5.5.4 Semi-Active Stabilizers [Seite 276]
6.5.5.5 - 3.5.5.5 Active Stabilizers [Seite 278]
6.5.6 - 3.5.6 Springs for use with AutomaticLeveling Systems [Seite 278]
6.5.6.1 - 3.5.6.1 Purpose and Configurations [Seite 278]
6.5.6.2 - 3.5.6.2 Leveling Using a Gas Spring [Seite 279]
6.5.7 - 3.5.7 Hydropneumatic Springs [Seite 282]
6.5.7.1 - 3.5.7.1 Self-Pumping Hydropneumatic Spring/Damper Elements [Seite 282]
6.5.8 - 3.5.8 Air Springs [Seite 285]
6.6 - 3.6 Damping [Seite 287]
6.6.1 - 3.6.1 The Purpose of Damping [Seite 287]
6.6.2 - 3.6.2 Telescopic Shock Absorber Designs [Seite 291]
6.6.2.1 - 3.6.2.1 Twin-Tube Shock Absorbers [Seite 291]
6.6.2.2 - 3.6.2.2 Monotube Shock Absorbers [Seite 292]
6.6.2.3 - 3.6.2.3 Comparison of Damper Types [Seite 292]
6.6.2.4 - 3.6.2.4 Special Designs [Seite 293]
6.6.3 - 3.6.3 Coilover Shock Absorber and Strut [Seite 293]
6.6.4 - 3.6.4 Shock Absorber Calculations [Seite 295]
6.6.5 - 3.6.5 Additional Damper Features [Seite 296]
6.6.5.1 - 3.6.5.1 Rebound and Compression Bump Stops [Seite 296]
6.6.5.2 - 3.6.5.2 Stroke-Dependent Damping [Seite 298]
6.6.5.3 - 3.6.5.3 Amplitude-Selective Damping [Seite 300]
6.6.6 - 3.6.6 Damper End Mounts [Seite 301]
6.6.7 - 3.6.7 Semi-Active Damping and Spring Functions [Seite 302]
6.6.8 - 3.6.8 Alternative Damping Concepts [Seite 306]
6.6.8.1 - 3.6.8.1 Magneto-Rheological (MRF) Dampers [Seite 306]
6.6.8.2 - 3.6.8.2 Conjoined Damping [Seite 307]
6.6.8.3 - 3.6.8.3 Load-Dependent Damping (PDC) [Seite 307]
6.7 - 3.7 Wheel Control [Seite 308]
6.7.1 - 3.7.1 Purpose, Requirements, and System Structure [Seite 308]
6.7.2 - 3.7.2 Suspension Links: Purpose, Requirements, and System Structure [Seite 309]
6.7.2.1 - 3.7.2.1 Control Arms (Control Links) [Seite 310]
6.7.2.2 - 3.7.2.2 Support Links [Seite 311]
6.7.2.3 - 3.7.2.3 Auxiliary Links [Seite 311]
6.7.2.4 - 3.7.2.4 Suspension Link Requirements [Seite 312]
6.7.2.5 - 3.7.2.5 Suspension Link Materials [Seite 312]
6.7.2.6 - 3.7.2.6 Suspension Link Manufacturing Processes [Seite 313]
6.7.2.7 - 3.7.2.7 Manufacturing Methods for Aluminum Suspension Links [Seite 319]
6.7.2.8 - 3.7.2.8 Configuration and Optimization of Suspension Links [Seite 321]
6.7.2.9 - 3.7.2.9 Integration of the Joints into the Link [Seite 321]
6.7.3 - 3.7.3 Ball Joints [Seite 322]
6.7.3.1 - 3.7.3.1 Purpose and Requirements [Seite 323]
6.7.3.2 - 3.7.3.2 Types of Ball Joints [Seite 323]
6.7.3.3 - 3.7.3.3 Ball Joint Components [Seite 324]
6.7.3.4 - 3.7.3.4 Bearing System (Ball Race, Grease) [Seite 327]
6.7.3.5 - 3.7.3.5 Sealing System (Sealing Boot, Retaining Ring) [Seite 330]
6.7.3.6 - 3.7.3.6 Suspension Ball Joints [Seite 333]
6.7.3.7 - 3.7.3.7 Preloaded Ball Joints [Seite 334]
6.7.3.8 - 3.7.3.8 Cross Axis Ball Joints [Seite 335]
6.7.4 - 3.7.4 Rubber Bushings [Seite 337]
6.7.4.1 - 3.7.4.1 Purpose, Requirements, and Function [Seite 337]
6.7.4.2 - 3.7.4.2 Types of Rubber Bushings [Seite 339]
6.7.5 - 3.7.5 Pivot Joints [Seite 341]
6.7.6 - 3.7.6 Rotational Sliding Joints (Trunnion Joints) [Seite 342]
6.7.7 - 3.7.7 Chassis Subframes [Seite 343]
6.7.7.1 - 3.7.7.1 Purpose and Requirements [Seite 343]
6.7.7.2 - 3.7.7.2 Types and Designs [Seite 343]
6.8 - 3.8 Wheel Carriers and Bearings [Seite 346]
6.8.1 - 3.8.1 Types of Wheel Carriers [Seite 346]
6.8.2 - 3.8.2 Wheel Carrier Materials and Manufacturing Methods [Seite 348]
6.8.3 - 3.8.3 Types of Wheel Bearings [Seite 349]
6.8.3.1 - 3.8.3.1 Bearing Seals [Seite 352]
6.8.3.2 - 3.8.3.2 Lubrication [Seite 352]
6.8.3.3 - 3.8.3.3 ABS Sensors [Seite 353]
6.8.4 - 3.8.4 Wheel Bearing Manufacturing [Seite 355]
6.8.4.1 - 3.8.4.1 Rings and Flanges [Seite 355]
6.8.4.2 - 3.8.4.2 Cages and Rolling Elements [Seite 356]
6.8.4.3 - 3.8.4.3 Assembly [Seite 356]
6.8.5 - 3.8.5 Requirements, Design, and Testing [Seite 356]
6.8.5.1 - 3.8.5.1 Bearing Rotational Fatigue Strength [Seite 358]
6.8.5.2 - 3.8.5.2 Component Strength and Tilt Stiffness [Seite 360]
6.8.5.3 - 3.8.5.3 Verification by Testing [Seite 362]
6.8.6 - 3.8.6 Future Prospects [Seite 363]
6.9 - 3.9 Tires and Wheels [Seite 367]
6.9.1 - 3.9.1 Tire Requirements [Seite 367]
6.9.1.1 - 3.9.1.1 Properties and Performance [Seite 367]
6.9.1.2 - 3.9.1.2 Legal Requirements [Seite 369]
6.9.2 - 3.9.2 Types, Construction, and Materials [Seite 370]
6.9.2.1 - 3.9.2.1 Tire Types [Seite 370]
6.9.2.2 - 3.9.2.2 Tire Construction [Seite 371]
6.9.2.3 - 3.9.2.3 Tire Materials [Seite 371]
6.9.2.4 - 3.9.2.4 The Viscoelastic Properties of Rubber [Seite 372]
6.9.3 - 3.9.3 Transmission of Forces between the Tire and the Road Surface [Seite 373]
6.9.3.1 - 3.9.3.1 Supporting Force [Seite 373]
6.9.3.2 - 3.9.3.2 Adhesion Behavior and Lateral Force Buildup [Seite 374]
6.9.3.3 - 3.9.3.3 Tangential Forces: Driving and Braking [Seite 375]
6.9.3.4 - 3.9.3.4 Sideslip, Lateral Forces, and Aligning Moments [Seite 375]
6.9.3.5 - 3.9.3.5 Sideslip Stiffness [Seite 376]
6.9.3.6 - 3.9.3.6 Tire Behavior under Slip [Seite 378]
6.9.3.7 - 3.9.3.7 Tire Uniformity [Seite 379]
6.9.4 - 3.9.4 Tire Simulation Models [Seite 379]
6.9.4.1 - 3.9.4.1 Tire Models for Lateral Dynamics [Seite 379]
6.9.4.2 - 3.9.4.2 Tire Models Using Finite Elements (FEM) [Seite 381]
6.9.4.3 - 3.9.4.3 Tire Models for Vertical Dynamics [Seite 381]
6.9.4.4 - 3.9.4.4 Tire Vibration Modes [Seite 382]
6.9.4.5 - 3.9.4.5 Cavity Natural Frequencies [Seite 382]
6.9.4.6 - 3.9.4.6 Full Tire Models [Seite 383]
6.9.5 - 3.9.5 Modern Tire Technologies [Seite 385]
6.9.5.1 - 3.9.5.1 Tire Sensors [Seite 385]
6.9.5.2 - 3.9.5.2 Run-Flat Tires [Seite 387]
6.9.5.3 - 3.9.5.3 Tires and Control Systems [Seite 388]
6.9.5.4 - 3.9.5.4 High Performance (HP) and Ultra High Performance (UHP) Tires [Seite 389]
6.9.6 - 3.9.6 Vehicle Testing and Measurement [Seite 390]
6.9.6.1 - 3.9.6.1 Subjective Test Procedures [Seite 390]
6.9.6.2 - 3.9.6.2 Objective Test Procedures for Longitudinal Adhesion [Seite 391]
6.9.6.3 - 3.9.6.3 Objective Test Procedures for Lateral Adhesion [Seite 392]
6.9.6.4 - 3.9.6.4 Acoustics [Seite 393]
6.9.7 - 3.9.7 Laboratory Testing and Measurement Methods [Seite 393]
6.9.7.1 - 3.9.7.1 Basic Tire Test Rig Designs [Seite 393]
6.9.7.2 - 3.9.7.2 Strength Tests [Seite 394]
6.9.7.3 - 3.9.7.3 Measuring Tire Characteristics Using a Test Rig [Seite 394]
6.9.7.4 - 3.9.7.4 Measuring Tire Characteristics Using a Vehicle-Mounted Test Rig [Seite 394]
6.9.7.5 - 3.9.7.5 Measuring Tire Rolling Resistance [Seite 395]
6.9.7.6 - 3.9.7.6 Measuring Uniformity and Geometry [Seite 395]
6.9.7.7 - 3.9.7.7 Roadway Measurement and Modeling [Seite 397]
6.9.7.8 - 3.9.7.8 Power Loss Analysis [Seite 397]
6.9.7.9 - 3.9.7.9 Tire Temperature Measurement [Seite 398]
6.9.8 - 3.9.8 The Future of Tire Technology [Seite 399]
6.9.8.1 - 3.9.8.1 Material Developments [Seite 399]
6.9.8.2 - 3.9.8.2 Energy Saving Tires [Seite 399]
7 - 4 Axles and Suspensions [Seite 403]
7.1 - 4.1 Rigid Axles [Seite 405]
7.1.1 - 4.1.1 The De Dion Driven Rigid Axle [Seite 407]
7.1.2 - 4.1.2 Rigid Axles with Longitudinal Leaf Springs [Seite 407]
7.1.3 - 4.1.3 Rigid Axles with Longitudinal and Lateral Links [Seite 408]
7.1.4 - 4.1.4 Rigid Parabolic Axles with a Central Joint and Lateral Control Links [Seite 409]
7.2 - 4.2 Semi-Rigid Axles [Seite 409]
7.2.1 - 4.2.1 Twist Beam Axles [Seite 410]
7.2.1.1 - 4.2.1.1 Torsion-Type Twist Beam Axles [Seite 411]
7.2.1.2 - 4.2.1.2 Standard Twist Beam Axles [Seite 411]
7.2.1.3 - 4.2.1.3 Coupling-Type Twist Beam Axles [Seite 412]
7.2.2 - 4.2.2 The Dynamic Twist Beam Axle [Seite 412]
7.3 - 4.3 Independent Suspension [Seite 413]
7.3.1 - 4.3.1 Independent Suspension Kinematics [Seite 413]
7.3.2 - 4.3.2 The Advantages of Independent Suspension [Seite 415]
7.3.3 - 4.3.3 Single-Link Independent Suspension Systems [Seite 415]
7.3.3.1 - 4.3.3.1 Trailing Link Independent Suspension [Seite 416]
7.3.3.2 - 4.3.3.2 Semi-Trailing Link Independent Suspension [Seite 417]
7.3.3.3 - 4.3.3.3 Screw-Link Independent Suspension [Seite 418]
7.3.4 - 4.3.4 Two-Link Independent Suspension [Seite 418]
7.3.4.1 - 4.3.4.1 Lateral-Longitudinal Swing Axles [Seite 418]
7.3.4.2 - 4.3.4.2 Trapezoidal Link with One Lateral Link (Audi 100 Quattro) [Seite 419]
7.3.4.3 - 4.3.4.3 Trapezoidal Link with One Flexible Lateral Link (Porsche Weissach Axle) [Seite 419]
7.3.5 - 4.3.5 Three-Link Independent Suspension [Seite 419]
7.3.5.1 - 4.3.5.1 Central Link Independent Suspension [Seite 419]
7.3.5.2 - 4.3.5.2 Double Wishbone Independent Suspension [Seite 420]
7.3.6 - 4.3.6 Four-Link Independent Suspension [Seite 422]
7.3.6.1 - 4.3.6.1 Rear Axle Multi-Link Independent Suspension [Seite 422]
7.3.6.2 - 4.3.6.2 Multi-Link Suspension with Two Lower Two-Point Links [Seite 423]
7.3.6.3 - 4.3.6.3 Trapezoidal (Integral) Link Suspension [Seite 423]
7.3.6.4 - 4.3.6.4 Two Longitudinal and Two Lateral Links [Seite 424]
7.3.6.5 - 4.3.6.5 One Longitudinal and Three Lateral Links [Seite 424]
7.3.6.6 - 4.3.6.6 One Diagonal and Three Lateral Links [Seite 425]
7.3.7 - 4.3.7 Five-Link Independent Suspension [Seite 426]
7.3.7.1 - 4.3.7.1 Five-Link Front Suspension (SLA with two Decomposed 3-Point Links) [Seite 426]
7.3.7.2 - 4.3.7.2 Five-Link Rear Suspension [Seite 426]
7.3.8 - 4.3.8 Strut-Type Suspension Systems [Seite 427]
7.4 - 4.4 Front Axle Suspension [Seite 430]
7.4.1 - 4.4.1 Front Axle Suspension System Requirements [Seite 430]
7.4.2 - 4.4.2 Front Axle Components [Seite 432]
7.4.3 - 4.4.3 Front Axle Suspension Types [Seite 432]
7.4.3.1 - 4.4.3.1 McPherson with Upper Strut Brace [Seite 432]
7.4.3.2 - 4.4.3.2 McPherson withOptimized Lower Control Arm [Seite 432]
7.4.3.3 - 4.4.3.3 McPherson withDecomposed Lower Control Arm [Seite 432]
7.4.3.4 - 4.4.3.4 McPherson with Two-Piece Wheel Carrier [Seite 433]
7.4.3.5 - 4.4.3.5 Double Wishbone with Decomposed Control Arms [Seite 433]
7.5 - 4.5 Rear Axle Suspension [Seite 434]
7.5.1 - 4.5.1 Rear Axle Suspension Requirements [Seite 434]
7.5.2 - 4.5.2 Rear Axle Components [Seite 434]
7.5.3 - 4.5.3 Rear Axle Suspension Types [Seite 434]
7.5.3.1 - 4.5.3.1 Non-Driven Rear Axles [Seite 434]
7.5.3.2 - 4.5.3.2 Driven Rear Axles [Seite 434]
7.5.4 - 4.5.4 ULSAS Rear Axle Benchmark [Seite 435]
7.6 - 4.6 Design Catalog for Axle Type Selection [Seite 436]
7.7 - 4.7 The Chassis as a Complete System [Seite 436]
7.7.1 - 4.7.1 Front / Rear Axle Interaction [Seite 436]
7.8 - 4.8 Future Suspension Systems [Seite 438]
7.8.1 - 4.8.1 Axles of the Past 20 Years [Seite 438]
7.8.2 - 4.8.2 Relative Popularity of Various Current Axle Designs [Seite 438]
7.8.3 - 4.8.3 Future Axle Designs (Trends) [Seite 438]
8 - 5 Ride Comfort and NVH [Seite 441]
8.1 - 5.1 Fundamentals: NVH and the Human Body [Seite 441]
8.1.1 - 5.1.1 Concepts and Definitions [Seite 441]
8.1.2 - 5.1.2 Sources of Vibrations, Oscillations, and Noise [Seite 442]
8.1.3 - 5.1.3 Limits of Human Perception [Seite 443]
8.1.4 - 5.1.4 Human Comfort and Well-Being [Seite 444]
8.1.5 - 5.1.5 Mitigation of Oscillation and Noise [Seite 445]
8.2 - 5.2 Bonded Rubber Components [Seite 446]
8.2.1 - 5.2.1 Bonded Rubber Component Functions [Seite 446]
8.2.1.1 - 5.2.1.1 Transferring Forces [Seite 446]
8.2.1.2 - 5.2.1.2 Enabling Defined Movements [Seite 446]
8.2.1.3 - 5.2.1.3 Noise Isolation [Seite 447]
8.2.1.4 - 5.2.1.4 Vibration Damping [Seite 448]
8.2.2 - 5.2.2 The Specific Definition of Elastomeric Components [Seite 449]
8.2.2.1 - 5.2.2.1 Force-Displacement Curves [Seite 449]
8.2.2.2 - 5.2.2.2 Damping [Seite 449]
8.2.2.3 - 5.2.2.3 Setting [Seite 450]
8.3 - 5.3 Engine and Transmission Mounts [Seite 451]
8.4 - 5.4 Chassis and Suspension Mounts and Bushings [Seite 455]
8.4.1 - 5.4.1 Rubber Bushings [Seite 455]
8.4.2 - 5.4.2 Sliding Bushings [Seite 456]
8.4.3 - 5.4.3 Hydraulically-Damped Bushings (Hydro Bushings) [Seite 457]
8.4.4 - 5.4.4 Chassis Subframe Mounts [Seite 460]
8.4.5 - 5.4.5 Upper Strut Bearings and Damper Mounts [Seite 461]
8.4.6 - 5.4.6 Twist Beam Axle Mounts [Seite 463]
8.5 - 5.5 Future Component Designs [Seite 464]
8.5.1 - 5.5.1 Sensors [Seite 465]
8.5.2 - 5.5.2 Switchable Chassis Mounts [Seite 465]
8.6 - 5.6 Computation Methods [Seite 466]
8.7 - 5.7 Acoustic Evaluation ofBonded Rubber Components [Seite 467]
9 - 6 Chassis Development [Seite 469]
9.1 - 6.1 The Development Process [Seite 469]
9.2 - 6.2 Project Management (PM) [Seite 475]
9.3 - 6.3 The Planning and Definition Phase [Seite 475]
9.3.1 - 6.3.1 Target Cascading [Seite 476]
9.4 - 6.4 The Concept Phase [Seite 477]
9.5 - 6.5 Computer-Aided Engineering [Seite 477]
9.5.1 - 6.5.1 Multi-Body Simulation (MBS) [Seite 478]
9.5.1.1 - 6.5.1.1 MBS Chassis and Suspension Models in ADAMS/Car [Seite 478]
9.5.1.2 - 6.5.1.2 CAD Chassis Models and Multi-Body Systems [Seite 478]
9.5.1.3 - 6.5.1.3 Multi-Body Simulation with Rigid and Flexible MBS [Seite 479]
9.5.1.4 - 6.5.1.4 Multi-Body Simulations Using Whole-Vehicle, Chassis, and Axle Models [Seite 480]
9.5.1.5 - 6.5.1.5 Effects of Manufacturing Tolerances on Kinematic Parameters [Seite 481]
9.5.2 - 6.5.2 Finite Element Method (FEM) [Seite 482]
9.5.2.1 - 6.5.2.1 Classification of Analyses [Seite 482]
9.5.2.2 - 6.5.2.2 Strength Analyses [Seite 483]
9.5.2.3 - 6.5.2.3 Stiffness Analyses [Seite 483]
9.5.2.4 - 6.5.2.4 Natural Frequency Analyses [Seite 483]
9.5.2.5 - 6.5.2.5 Service Life and Durability Analyses [Seite 484]
9.5.2.6 - 6.5.2.6 Crash Simulations [Seite 484]
9.5.2.7 - 6.5.2.7 Topology and Shape Optimization [Seite 484]
9.5.2.8 - 6.5.2.8 Simulations of Manufacturing Processes [Seite 486]
9.5.3 - 6.5.3 Whole-Vehicle Simulations [Seite 486]
9.5.3.1 - 6.5.3.1 Vehicle Handling and Dynamic Simulations [Seite 486]
9.5.3.2 - 6.5.3.2 Kinematics and Elastokinematics [Seite 486]
9.5.3.3 - 6.5.3.3 Standard Load Cases [Seite 487]
9.5.3.4 - 6.5.3.4 MBS Model Verification [Seite 488]
9.5.3.5 - 6.5.3.5 NVH [Seite 488]
9.5.3.6 - 6.5.3.6 Loads Management (Load Cascading from Systems to Components) [Seite 490]
9.5.3.7 - 6.5.3.7 Whole-Vehicle Durability Simulations [Seite 494]
9.5.3.8 - 6.5.3.8 Whole-Vehicle Handling Fingerprint [Seite 494]
9.5.3.9 - 6.5.3.9 Specification of Elastokinematics Using Control-System Methods [Seite 495]
9.5.4 - 6.5.4 3D Modeling Software (CAD) [Seite 496]
9.5.5 - 6.5.5 Integrated Simulation Environment [Seite 497]
9.5.5.1 - 6.5.5.1 Kinematic Analysis Using ABE Software [Seite 497]
9.5.5.2 - 6.5.5.2 The Virtual Product Development Environment (VPE) [Seite 500]
9.6 - 6.6 Series Development and Validation [Seite 502]
9.6.1 - 6.6.1 Design [Seite 502]
9.6.1.1 - 6.6.1.1 Component Design [Seite 503]
9.6.1.2 - 6.6.1.2 Package Volume [Seite 504]
9.6.1.3 - 6.6.1.3 Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) [Seite 505]
9.6.1.4 - 6.6.1.4 Tolerance Investigations [Seite 505]
9.6.2 - 6.6.2 Validation [Seite 505]
9.6.2.1 - 6.6.2.1 Prototypes [Seite 505]
9.6.2.2 - 6.6.2.2 Validation Using Test Rigs [Seite 505]
9.6.2.3 - 6.6.2.3 Roadway Simulation Test Rig [Seite 508]
9.6.3 - 6.6.3 Whole-Vehicle Validation [Seite 509]
9.6.4 - 6.6.4 Optimization and Fine-Tuning [Seite 510]
9.7 - 6.7 Development ActivitiesDuring Series Production [Seite 510]
9.8 - 6.8 Summary and Future Prospects [Seite 511]
10 - 7 Chassis Control Systems [Seite 513]
10.1 - 7.1 Chassis Electronics [Seite 513]
10.2 - 7.2 Electronic Chassis ControlSystems [Seite 513]
10.2.1 - 7.2.1 Domains [Seite 513]
10.2.2 - 7.2.2 Longitudinal Dynamic Control Systems - Wheel Slip Regulation [Seite 514]
10.2.2.1 - 7.2.2.1 Braking Control [Seite 514]
10.2.2.2 - 7.2.2.2 Electronically-Controlled Center Differentials [Seite 514]
10.2.2.3 - 7.2.2.3 Torque-On-Demand Transfer Cases [Seite 514]
10.2.2.4 - 7.2.2.4 Electronically-ControlledAxle Differentials [Seite 515]
10.2.2.5 - 7.2.2.5 Axle Drive for Lateral Torque Distribution [Seite 516]
10.2.3 - 7.2.3 Lateral Dynamic Control Systems [Seite 517]
10.2.3.1 - 7.2.3.1 Electric Power Steering Systems (EPS) [Seite 517]
10.2.3.2 - 7.2.3.2 Superimposed Steering [Seite 518]
10.2.3.3 - 7.2.3.3 Active Rear-Wheel Steering [Seite 518]
10.2.3.4 - 7.2.3.4 Active Rear-Axle Kinematics [Seite 519]
10.2.4 - 7.2.4 Vertical Dynamic Control Systems [Seite 519]
10.2.4.1 - 7.2.4.1 Variable Dampers [Seite 519]
10.2.4.2 - 7.2.4.2 Active Stabilizers [Seite 521]
10.2.4.3 - 7.2.4.3 Active Leveling Systems [Seite 521]
10.2.5 - 7.2.5 Safety Requirements [Seite 522]
10.2.6 - 7.2.6 Bus Systems [Seite 523]
10.2.6.1 - 7.2.6.1 CAN [Seite 523]
10.2.6.2 - 7.2.6.2 FlexRay [Seite 523]
10.3 - 7.3 System Networking [Seite 523]
10.3.1 - 7.3.1 Vehicle Dynamic Control (VDC) [Seite 523]
10.3.2 - 7.3.2 Torque Vectoring [Seite 525]
10.3.3 - 7.3.3 Vertical Dynamic Management [Seite 526]
10.4 - 7.4 Functional Integration [Seite 526]
10.4.1 - 7.4.1 System Architecture [Seite 526]
10.4.2 - 7.4.2 Standard Interfaces [Seite 527]
10.4.3 - 7.4.3 Smart Actuators [Seite 528]
10.5 - 7.5 Chassis Control System [Seite 528]
10.5.1 - 7.5.1 Simulation Models [Seite 529]
10.5.2 - 7.5.2 Hardware-in-the-Loop Simulation [Seite 530]
10.6 - 7.6 Mechatronic Chassis Systems [Seite 531]
10.6.1 - 7.6.1 Longitudinal Dynamics [Seite 531]
10.6.1.1 - 7.6.1.1 Powertrain Systems [Seite 532]
10.6.1.2 - 7.6.1.2 Braking Systems [Seite 534]
10.6.2 - 7.6.2 Lateral Dynamics [Seite 536]
10.6.2.1 - 7.6.2.1 Front-Wheel Steering Systems [Seite 536]
10.6.2.2 - 7.6.2.2 Rear-Wheel Steering Systems [Seite 537]
10.6.2.3 - 7.6.2.3 Roll Stabilization Systems [Seite 540]
10.6.2.4 - 7.6.2.4 Active Kinematics [Seite 543]
10.6.3 - 7.6.3 Vertical Dynamics [Seite 546]
10.6.3.1 - 7.6.3.1 System Requirements [Seite 546]
10.6.3.2 - 7.6.3.2 Classification of Vertical Dynamic Systems [Seite 546]
10.6.3.3 - 7.6.3.3 Damping Systems [Seite 547]
10.6.3.4 - 7.6.3.4 Active Leveling Systems [Seite 551]
10.6.3.5 - 7.6.3.5 Current Active Spring Systems [Seite 552]
10.6.3.6 - 7.6.3.6 Fully Active Integrated Suspension Systems [Seite 555]
10.6.3.7 - 7.6.3.7 Pivots (Bushings, Joints, Mounts) [Seite 557]
10.7 - 7.7 X-by-wire [Seite 559]
10.7.1 - 7.7.1 Steer-by-wire [Seite 559]
10.7.2 - 7.7.2 Brake-by-wire [Seite 560]
10.7.2.1 - 7.7.2.1 Electrohydraulic Braking (EHB) [Seite 561]
10.7.2.2 - 7.7.2.2 Electromechanical Braking(EMB) Systems [Seite 561]
10.7.2.3 - 7.7.2.3 The ContiTeves Electromechanical Brake [Seite 562]
10.7.2.4 - 7.7.2.4 Radial (Full-Contact) Disc Brakes [Seite 562]
10.7.2.5 - 7.7.2.5 Wedge Brake [Seite 564]
10.7.3 - 7.7.3 Leveling-by-wire [Seite 565]
10.8 - 7.8 Driver Assistance Systems [Seite 565]
10.8.1 - 7.8.1 Braking Assistance Systems [Seite 565]
10.8.1.1 - 7.8.1.1 Safety-Relevant Braking Assistance [Seite 566]
10.8.1.2 - 7.8.1.2 Comfort-Oriented Braking Assistance [Seite 567]
10.8.1.3 - 7.8.1.3 Braking Assistance System Requirements [Seite 567]
10.8.2 - 7.8.2 Distance Assistance Systems [Seite 568]
10.8.3 - 7.8.3 Steering Assistance Systems [Seite 569]
10.8.3.1 - 7.8.3.1 Steering Assistance Using Adaptive Assistance Torques [Seite 569]
10.8.3.2 - 7.8.3.2 Steering Assistance Using Additional Steering Torque [Seite 569]
10.8.3.3 - 7.8.3.3 Steering Assistance Using a Supplemental Steer Angle [Seite 570]
10.8.3.4 - 7.8.3.4 Summary [Seite 571]
10.8.4 - 7.8.4 Parking Assistance Systems [Seite 571]
10.8.4.1 - 7.8.4.1 Introduction [Seite 571]
10.8.4.2 - 7.8.4.2 Parking Space Recognition [Seite 571]
10.8.4.3 - 7.8.4.3 Parallel Parking [Seite 573]
10.8.4.4 - 7.8.4.4 Steering Actuators [Seite 574]
11 - 8 The Future of Chassis Technology [Seite 577]
11.1 - 8.1 Chassis System Concepts - Focus on Customer Value [Seite 577]
11.1.1 - 8.1.1 Choosing Handling Behavior [Seite 577]
11.1.2 - 8.1.2 Diversification of Vehicle Concepts - Stabilization of Chassis Concepts [Seite 579]
11.1.2.1 - 8.1.2.1 Front Suspension as of 2004 [Seite 579]
11.1.2.2 - 8.1.2.2 Rear Suspension as of 2004 [Seite 580]
11.1.3 - 8.1.3 The Future of Chassis Subsystems and Components [Seite 580]
11.1.3.1 - 8.1.3.1 The Future of Axle Drive Units [Seite 580]
11.1.3.2 - 8.1.3.2 The Future of Braking Systems [Seite 581]
11.1.3.3 - 8.1.3.3 The Future of Steering Systems [Seite 581]
11.1.3.4 - 8.1.3.4 The Future of Suspension Spring Systems [Seite 581]
11.1.3.5 - 8.1.3.5 The Future of Dampers [Seite 581]
11.1.3.6 - 8.1.3.6 The Future of Wheel Control Components [Seite 581]
11.1.3.7 - 8.1.3.7 The Future of Wheel Bearings [Seite 581]
11.1.3.8 - 8.1.3.8 The Future of Tires and Wheels [Seite 581]
11.2 - 8.2 Electronic Chassis Systems [Seite 581]
11.2.1 - 8.2.1 Electronic Assistance Systems and Networking [Seite 581]
11.2.2 - 8.2.2 Networking Chassis Control Systems [Seite 582]
11.2.2.1 - 8.2.2.1 Peaceful Coexistence [Seite 582]
11.2.2.2 - 8.2.2.2 Integral Control [Seite 583]
11.2.2.3 - 8.2.2.3 Networked Control [Seite 583]
11.2.2.4 - 8.2.2.4 Performance / Efficiency [Seite 584]
11.2.2.5 - 8.2.2.5 System Safety [Seite 584]
11.2.2.6 - 8.2.2.6 The Development Process [Seite 584]
11.2.2.7 - 8.2.2.7 Data Transmission Requirements [Seite 585]
11.2.2.8 - 8.2.2.8 Summary [Seite 585]
11.3 - 8.3 The Future of X-by-Wire Systems [Seite 585]
11.4 - 8.4 Intelligent and Predictive Future Chassis Systems [Seite 586]
11.4.1 - 8.4.1 Sensors [Seite 587]
11.4.2 - 8.4.2 Actuators [Seite 587]
11.4.3 - 8.4.3 Predictive Driving [Seite 588]
11.5 - 8.5 Hybrid Vehicles [Seite 590]
11.6 - 8.6 The Rolling/Driving Chassis [Seite 591]
11.7 - 8.7 The Vision of Autonomous Vehicle Control [Seite 592]
11.8 - 8.8 Future Scenarios for Vehicle and Chassis Technology [Seite 593]
11.9 - 8.9 Outlook [Seite 596]
12 - Index [Seite 599]
2 - Contributors [Seite 6]
3 - Contents [Seite 8]
4 - 1 Introduction and Fundamentals [Seite 23]
4.1 - 1.1 History, Definition, Function, and Significance [Seite 24]
4.1.1 - 1.1.1 History [Seite 24]
4.1.2 - 1.1.2 Definition and Scope [Seite 29]
4.1.3 - 1.1.3 Purpose and Significance [Seite 30]
4.2 - 1.2 Chassis Design [Seite 31]
4.2.1 - 1.2.1 Vehicle Classification [Seite 31]
4.2.2 - 1.2.2 Powertrain Configurations [Seite 32]
4.2.3 - 1.2.3 Chassis Composition [Seite 35]
4.2.4 - 1.2.4 Trends in Chassis Composition [Seite 35]
4.3 - 1.3 Chassis Layout [Seite 37]
4.3.1 - 1.3.1 Chassis Requirements [Seite 38]
4.3.2 - 1.3.2 Layout of Suspension Kinematics [Seite 40]
4.3.3 - 1.3.3 Suspension Kinematics [Seite 40]
4.3.3.1 - 1.3.3.1 Suspension Parameters Relative to Vehicle [Seite 40]
4.3.3.2 - 1.3.3.2 Roll and Pitch Center [Seite 42]
4.3.3.3 - 1.3.3.3 Wheel Travel [Seite 42]
4.3.3.4 - 1.3.3.4 Wheel Travel Parameters [Seite 43]
4.3.3.5 - 1.3.3.5 Steering Kinematic Parameters [Seite 46]
4.3.3.6 - 1.3.3.6 Kinematic Parameters of Current Vehicles [Seite 50]
4.3.3.7 - 1.3.3.7 Wheel Travel Curves [Seite 50]
4.3.3.8 - 1.3.3.8 Wheel Kinematic Calculation Software [Seite 53]
4.3.4 - 1.3.4 Elastokinematics and Component Compliances in Suspension Design [Seite 53]
4.3.5 - 1.3.5 Target Parameter Values [Seite 54]
4.3.6 - 1.3.6 Suspension Composition [Seite 55]
5 - 2 Driving Dynamics [Seite 57]
5.1 - 2.1 Driving Resistances and Energy Requirements [Seite 57]
5.1.1 - 2.1.1 Driving Resistances [Seite 57]
5.1.1.1 - 2.1.1.1 Rolling Resistance [Seite 57]
5.1.1.2 - 2.1.1.2 Effect of Road Surface on Rolling Resistance FR,Tr [Seite 62]
5.1.1.3 - 2.1.1.3 Aerodynamic Drag FA [Seite 65]
5.1.1.4 - 2.1.1.4 Climbing Resistance FC [Seite 66]
5.1.1.5 - 2.1.1.5 Inertial Resistance FI [Seite 67]
5.1.1.6 - 2.1.1.6 Total Driving Resistance [Seite 68]
5.1.2 - 2.1.2 Crosswind Response Behavior [Seite 68]
5.1.3 - 2.1.3 Performance and Energy Requirements [Seite 71]
5.1.4 - 2.1.4 Fuel Consumption [Seite 72]
5.2 - 2.2 Tire Traction and Force Transfer to the Roadway [Seite 74]
5.2.1 - 2.2.1 The Physics of Tire Traction and Force Transfer [Seite 76]
5.2.1.1 - 2.2.1.1 Acceleration and Braking [Seite 79]
5.2.1.2 - 2.2.1.2 Cornering [Seite 80]
5.2.2 - 2.2.2 Detailed Tire Forces [Seite 85]
5.3 - 2.3 Longitudinal Dynamics [Seite 87]
5.3.1 - 2.3.1 Acceleration and Braking [Seite 87]
5.3.1.1 - 2.3.1.1 Anti-Dive [Seite 87]
5.3.1.2 - 2.3.1.2 Anti-Lift (Anti-Squat) [Seite 88]
5.3.1.3 - 2.3.1.3 Load Changes During Straightline Driving [Seite 89]
5.4 - 2.4 Vertical Dynamics [Seite 89]
5.4.1 - 2.4.1 Springs [Seite 89]
5.4.1.1 - 2.4.1.1 Spring Ratio [Seite 90]
5.4.1.2 - 2.4.1.2 Natural (Eigen) Frequencies [Seite 90]
5.4.2 - 2.4.2 Vibration Dampers [Seite 91]
5.4.3 - 2.4.3 Excitations from the Roadway [Seite 92]
5.4.3.1 - 2.4.3.1 Harmonic Excitations [Seite 92]
5.4.3.2 - 2.4.3.2 Periodic Irregularities [Seite 93]
5.4.3.3 - 2.4.3.3 Stochastic (Random) Irregularities [Seite 93]
5.4.3.4 - 2.4.3.4 Spectral Density of Road Surface Irregularities [Seite 94]
5.4.3.5 - 2.4.3.5 Measured Road Surface Irregularities [Seite 95]
5.4.4 - 2.4.4 Tires as Spring/Damper Elements [Seite 95]
5.4.5 - 2.4.5 Suspension Models [Seite 96]
5.4.5.1 - 2.4.5.1 Single-Mass System [Seite 96]
5.4.5.2 - 2.4.5.2 Dual-Mass System [Seite 97]
5.4.5.3 - 2.4.5.3 Expansion of the Model to Include Seat Suspension Effects [Seite 97]
5.4.5.4 - 2.4.5.4 Single-Track Suspension Model [Seite 98]
5.4.5.5 - 2.4.5.5 Two-Track Suspension Model [Seite 99]
5.4.6 - 2.4.6 Parameter Variation [Seite 101]
5.4.7 - 2.4.7 The Roadway/Vehicle Connection [Seite 103]
5.4.7.1 - 2.4.7.1 Spectral Density of Vehicle Body Accelerations [Seite 104]
5.4.7.2 - 2.4.7.2 Spectral Density of Dynamic Wheel Loads [Seite 106]
5.4.8 - 2.4.8 Human Oscillation Evaluation [Seite 106]
5.4.9 - 2.4.9 Conclusions from the Fundamentalsof Vertical Dynamics [Seite 108]
5.5 - 2.5 Lateral Dynamics [Seite 108]
5.5.1 - 2.5.1 Handling Requirements [Seite 108]
5.5.2 - 2.5.2 Steering Kinematics [Seite 109]
5.5.2.1 - 2.5.2.1 Static Steering Layout [Seite 109]
5.5.2.2 - 2.5.2.2 Dynamic Steering Layout [Seite 110]
5.5.3 - 2.5.3 Vehicle Modeling [Seite 111]
5.5.3.1 - 2.5.3.1 Simple Single-Track (Bicycle) Model [Seite 111]
5.5.3.2 - 2.5.3.2 Simple Vehicle Dynamics [Seite 112]
5.5.3.3 - 2.5.3.3 Understeer and Oversteer [Seite 115]
5.5.3.4 - 2.5.3.4 Expanded Single-Track Model with Rear-Wheel Steering [Seite 116]
5.5.3.5 - 2.5.3.5 Nonlinear Single-Track Model [Seite 117]
5.5.3.6 - 2.5.3.6 Analysis of Transient Behavior Using the Simple Single-Track Model [Seite 119]
5.5.3.7 - 2.5.3.7 The Vehicle as Part of a Closed-Loop System [Seite 121]
5.5.3.8 - 2.5.3.8 Dynamic Behavior of the Vehicle as Part of a Closed-Loop System [Seite 122]
5.5.3.9 - 2.5.3.9 Slip Angle Compensation Using Rear-Wheel Steering [Seite 125]
5.5.3.10 - 2.5.3.10 Investigation of Frequency Response for Varied Vehicle Configurations [Seite 127]
5.5.3.11 - 2.5.3.11 Dual-Track Model [Seite 128]
5.5.3.12 - 2.5.3.12 Parameter Variation [Seite 131]
5.6 - 2.6 General Vehicle Dynamics [Seite 135]
5.6.1 - 2.6.1 Interactions between Vertical, Longitudinal, and Lateral Dynamics [Seite 135]
5.7 - 2.7 Chassis Control Systems [Seite 140]
5.7.1 - 2.7.1 Definition of Terms [Seite 140]
5.7.2 - 2.7.2 Limitations of the Passive Vehicle - Basic Goal Conflicts [Seite 140]
5.7.3 - 2.7.3 The Driver-Vehicle Control Loop [Seite 141]
5.7.4 - 2.7.4 Division of Chassis Control Systems into Domains [Seite 142]
5.7.4.1 - 2.7.4.1 Longitudinal Dynamics [Seite 142]
5.7.4.2 - 2.7.4.2 Lateral Dynamics [Seite 143]
5.7.4.3 - 2.7.4.3 Vertical Dynamics [Seite 143]
5.7.5 - 2.7.5 Requirements for Chassis Control Systems [Seite 143]
5.8 - 2.8 Handling Characteristics [Seite 144]
5.8.1 - 2.8.1 Handling Evaluation [Seite 144]
5.8.2 - 2.8.2 Driving Maneuvers [Seite 146]
5.8.3 - 2.8.3 Parameter Range of Maneuvers [Seite 146]
5.8.4 - 2.8.4 Tuning Procedures [Seite 149]
5.8.4.1 - 2.8.4.1 Tuning Procedures forSteady-State Steering Behavior [Seite 149]
5.8.5 - 2.8.5 Subjective Handling Evaluation [Seite 149]
5.8.5.1 - 2.8.5.1 Evaluation Methods and Representation [Seite 152]
5.8.5.2 - 2.8.5.2 Acceleration (Driveoff) Behavior [Seite 152]
5.8.5.3 - 2.8.5.3 Braking Behavior [Seite 152]
5.8.5.4 - 2.8.5.4 Steering Behavior [Seite 154]
5.8.5.5 - 2.8.5.5 Cornering Behavior [Seite 156]
5.8.5.6 - 2.8.5.6 Straightline Driving Behavior [Seite 156]
5.8.5.7 - 2.8.5.7 Ride Comfort [Seite 158]
5.8.6 - 2.8.6 Objective Handling Evaluations [Seite 159]
5.8.6.1 - 2.8.6.1 Measurement Parameters [Seite 159]
5.8.6.2 - 2.8.6.2 Acceleration (Driveoff) Behavior [Seite 159]
5.8.6.3 - 2.8.6.3 Braking Behavior [Seite 160]
5.8.6.4 - 2.8.6.4 Steering Behavior [Seite 161]
5.8.6.5 - 2.8.6.5 Cornering Behavior [Seite 163]
5.8.6.6 - 2.8.6.6 Straightline Driving Behavior [Seite 165]
5.8.6.7 - 2.8.6.7 Ride Comfort [Seite 167]
5.9 - 2.9 Active and Passive Safety [Seite 167]
6 - 3 Chassis Components [Seite 170]
6.1 - 3.1 Chassis Structuring [Seite 170]
6.1.1 - 3.1.1 Classification by Function [Seite 170]
6.1.2 - 3.1.2 Modular Chassis Structure [Seite 171]
6.1.3 - 3.1.3 Chassis Components [Seite 171]
6.2 - 3.2 Drivetrain [Seite 172]
6.2.1 - 3.2.1 Configurations [Seite 172]
6.2.2 - 3.2.2 Axle Drives [Seite 172]
6.2.2.1 - 3.2.2.1 Differentials [Seite 172]
6.2.2.2 - 3.2.2.2 Locking Differentials [Seite 172]
6.2.2.3 - 3.2.2.3 Active Differentials [Seite 174]
6.2.2.4 - 3.2.2.4 Torque Vectoring [Seite 174]
6.2.3 - 3.2.3 Four-wheel-drive (All-wheel-drive) [Seite 175]
6.2.4 - 3.2.4 Control Strategies [Seite 176]
6.2.5 - 3.2.5 Half-shafts [Seite 177]
6.3 - 3.3 Wheel Brakes and Braking [Seite 178]
6.3.1 - 3.3.1 Fundamentals and Requirements [Seite 178]
6.3.2 - 3.3.2 Types of Braking Systems [Seite 179]
6.3.2.1 - 3.3.2.1 General Requirements [Seite 180]
6.3.3 - 3.3.3 Legal Regulations [Seite 181]
6.3.4 - 3.3.4 Brake System Design [Seite 181]
6.3.4.1 - 3.3.4.1 Brake Force Distribution [Seite 181]
6.3.4.2 - 3.3.4.2 Dimensioning [Seite 183]
6.3.5 - 3.3.5 Braking Torque and Dynamics [Seite 183]
6.3.5.1 - 3.3.5.1 Braking Torque [Seite 183]
6.3.5.2 - 3.3.5.2 Braking Dynamics [Seite 184]
6.3.6 - 3.3.6 Brake System Components [Seite 185]
6.3.6.1 - 3.3.6.1 Brake Calipers [Seite 185]
6.3.6.2 - 3.3.6.2 Brake Discs [Seite 189]
6.3.6.3 - 3.3.6.3 Brake Linings [Seite 190]
6.3.6.4 - 3.3.6.4 Drum Brakes [Seite 190]
6.3.6.5 - 3.3.6.5 Brake Fluid [Seite 193]
6.3.6.6 - 3.3.6.6 Brake Force Booster [Seite 193]
6.3.6.7 - 3.3.6.7 Tandem Master Cylinder [Seite 194]
6.3.6.8 - 3.3.6.8 Human-Machine Interface (HMI) [Seite 194]
6.3.7 - 3.3.7 Electronic Braking Control Systems [Seite 198]
6.3.7.1 - 3.3.7.1 Brake Assistant (MBA, EBA, HBA) [Seite 198]
6.3.7.2 - 3.3.7.2 Wheel Speed Sensors [Seite 201]
6.3.7.3 - 3.3.7.3 Electronic Braking System Functions [Seite 202]
6.3.7.4 - 3.3.7.4 Electrohydraulic Brake (EHB) [Seite 208]
6.3.7.5 - 3.3.7.5 Electromechanical Brake (EMB) [Seite 209]
6.3.7.6 - 3.3.7.6 Networked Chassis [Seite 211]
6.4 - 3.4 Steering Systems [Seite 212]
6.4.1 - 3.4.1 Requirements and Designs [Seite 212]
6.4.2 - 3.4.2 Hydraulic Rack and Pinion Steering [Seite 215]
6.4.2.1 - 3.4.2.1 Technology and Function [Seite 215]
6.4.2.2 - 3.4.2.2 Design and Components [Seite 218]
6.4.3 - 3.4.3 Steering Tie Rods [Seite 221]
6.4.4 - 3.4.4 Steering Driveline and Steering Column [Seite 224]
6.4.4.1 - 3.4.4.1 Components and Function Modules [Seite 224]
6.4.4.2 - 3.4.4.2 Design and Testing [Seite 226]
6.4.4.3 - 3.4.4.3 Crash Requirements and Energy Absorption Mechanisms [Seite 227]
6.4.4.4 - 3.4.4.4 Future Prospects and Modularization [Seite 230]
6.4.5 - 3.4.5 Electromechanical Steering Systems [Seite 230]
6.4.5.1 - 3.4.5.1 Design Concepts [Seite 230]
6.4.5.2 - 3.4.5.2 Configuration and Advantages [Seite 233]
6.4.6 - 3.4.6 Active Steering and Superposition Steering [Seite 236]
6.4.6.1 - 3.4.6.1 Functional Principles and Configuration [Seite 236]
6.4.6.2 - 3.4.6.2 Functions - Present and Future [Seite 238]
6.4.7 - 3.4.7 Rack and Pinion Power Steering with Torque and Angle Actuators [Seite 240]
6.4.8 - 3.4.8 Rear-wheel and Four-wheel Steering Systems [Seite 241]
6.4.9 - 3.4.9 Steer-by-wire and Single-wheel Steering Systems [Seite 243]
6.4.9.1 - 3.4.9.1 System Configuration and Components [Seite 244]
6.4.9.2 - 3.4.9.2 Technology, Advantages, Opportunities [Seite 246]
6.5 - 3.5 Springs and Stabilizers [Seite 247]
6.5.1 - 3.5.1 The Purpose of the Spring System [Seite 247]
6.5.2 - 3.5.2 Design and Calculation of Steel Springs [Seite 247]
6.5.2.1 - 3.5.2.1 Leaf Springs [Seite 248]
6.5.2.2 - 3.5.2.2 Torsion Bar Springs [Seite 251]
6.5.2.3 - 3.5.2.3 Stabilizers [Seite 252]
6.5.2.4 - 3.5.2.4 Coil Springs [Seite 260]
6.5.3 - 3.5.3 Spring Materials [Seite 268]
6.5.4 - 3.5.4 Steel Spring Manufacture [Seite 270]
6.5.4.1 - 3.5.4.1 Hot Forming [Seite 270]
6.5.4.2 - 3.5.4.2 Heat Treating Hot Formed Springs [Seite 272]
6.5.4.3 - 3.5.4.3 Cold Forming [Seite 272]
6.5.4.4 - 3.5.4.4 Shot Peening [Seite 273]
6.5.4.5 - 3.5.4.5 Plastification [Seite 274]
6.5.4.6 - 3.5.4.6 Corrosion Protection [Seite 274]
6.5.4.7 - 3.5.4.7 Final Inspection and Marking [Seite 275]
6.5.5 - 3.5.5 Roll Control Using Stabilizers [Seite 275]
6.5.5.1 - 3.5.5.1 Passive Stabilizers [Seite 275]
6.5.5.2 - 3.5.5.2 Switchable Off-Road Stabilizers [Seite 276]
6.5.5.3 - 3.5.5.3 Switchable On-Road Stabilizers [Seite 276]
6.5.5.4 - 3.5.5.4 Semi-Active Stabilizers [Seite 276]
6.5.5.5 - 3.5.5.5 Active Stabilizers [Seite 278]
6.5.6 - 3.5.6 Springs for use with AutomaticLeveling Systems [Seite 278]
6.5.6.1 - 3.5.6.1 Purpose and Configurations [Seite 278]
6.5.6.2 - 3.5.6.2 Leveling Using a Gas Spring [Seite 279]
6.5.7 - 3.5.7 Hydropneumatic Springs [Seite 282]
6.5.7.1 - 3.5.7.1 Self-Pumping Hydropneumatic Spring/Damper Elements [Seite 282]
6.5.8 - 3.5.8 Air Springs [Seite 285]
6.6 - 3.6 Damping [Seite 287]
6.6.1 - 3.6.1 The Purpose of Damping [Seite 287]
6.6.2 - 3.6.2 Telescopic Shock Absorber Designs [Seite 291]
6.6.2.1 - 3.6.2.1 Twin-Tube Shock Absorbers [Seite 291]
6.6.2.2 - 3.6.2.2 Monotube Shock Absorbers [Seite 292]
6.6.2.3 - 3.6.2.3 Comparison of Damper Types [Seite 292]
6.6.2.4 - 3.6.2.4 Special Designs [Seite 293]
6.6.3 - 3.6.3 Coilover Shock Absorber and Strut [Seite 293]
6.6.4 - 3.6.4 Shock Absorber Calculations [Seite 295]
6.6.5 - 3.6.5 Additional Damper Features [Seite 296]
6.6.5.1 - 3.6.5.1 Rebound and Compression Bump Stops [Seite 296]
6.6.5.2 - 3.6.5.2 Stroke-Dependent Damping [Seite 298]
6.6.5.3 - 3.6.5.3 Amplitude-Selective Damping [Seite 300]
6.6.6 - 3.6.6 Damper End Mounts [Seite 301]
6.6.7 - 3.6.7 Semi-Active Damping and Spring Functions [Seite 302]
6.6.8 - 3.6.8 Alternative Damping Concepts [Seite 306]
6.6.8.1 - 3.6.8.1 Magneto-Rheological (MRF) Dampers [Seite 306]
6.6.8.2 - 3.6.8.2 Conjoined Damping [Seite 307]
6.6.8.3 - 3.6.8.3 Load-Dependent Damping (PDC) [Seite 307]
6.7 - 3.7 Wheel Control [Seite 308]
6.7.1 - 3.7.1 Purpose, Requirements, and System Structure [Seite 308]
6.7.2 - 3.7.2 Suspension Links: Purpose, Requirements, and System Structure [Seite 309]
6.7.2.1 - 3.7.2.1 Control Arms (Control Links) [Seite 310]
6.7.2.2 - 3.7.2.2 Support Links [Seite 311]
6.7.2.3 - 3.7.2.3 Auxiliary Links [Seite 311]
6.7.2.4 - 3.7.2.4 Suspension Link Requirements [Seite 312]
6.7.2.5 - 3.7.2.5 Suspension Link Materials [Seite 312]
6.7.2.6 - 3.7.2.6 Suspension Link Manufacturing Processes [Seite 313]
6.7.2.7 - 3.7.2.7 Manufacturing Methods for Aluminum Suspension Links [Seite 319]
6.7.2.8 - 3.7.2.8 Configuration and Optimization of Suspension Links [Seite 321]
6.7.2.9 - 3.7.2.9 Integration of the Joints into the Link [Seite 321]
6.7.3 - 3.7.3 Ball Joints [Seite 322]
6.7.3.1 - 3.7.3.1 Purpose and Requirements [Seite 323]
6.7.3.2 - 3.7.3.2 Types of Ball Joints [Seite 323]
6.7.3.3 - 3.7.3.3 Ball Joint Components [Seite 324]
6.7.3.4 - 3.7.3.4 Bearing System (Ball Race, Grease) [Seite 327]
6.7.3.5 - 3.7.3.5 Sealing System (Sealing Boot, Retaining Ring) [Seite 330]
6.7.3.6 - 3.7.3.6 Suspension Ball Joints [Seite 333]
6.7.3.7 - 3.7.3.7 Preloaded Ball Joints [Seite 334]
6.7.3.8 - 3.7.3.8 Cross Axis Ball Joints [Seite 335]
6.7.4 - 3.7.4 Rubber Bushings [Seite 337]
6.7.4.1 - 3.7.4.1 Purpose, Requirements, and Function [Seite 337]
6.7.4.2 - 3.7.4.2 Types of Rubber Bushings [Seite 339]
6.7.5 - 3.7.5 Pivot Joints [Seite 341]
6.7.6 - 3.7.6 Rotational Sliding Joints (Trunnion Joints) [Seite 342]
6.7.7 - 3.7.7 Chassis Subframes [Seite 343]
6.7.7.1 - 3.7.7.1 Purpose and Requirements [Seite 343]
6.7.7.2 - 3.7.7.2 Types and Designs [Seite 343]
6.8 - 3.8 Wheel Carriers and Bearings [Seite 346]
6.8.1 - 3.8.1 Types of Wheel Carriers [Seite 346]
6.8.2 - 3.8.2 Wheel Carrier Materials and Manufacturing Methods [Seite 348]
6.8.3 - 3.8.3 Types of Wheel Bearings [Seite 349]
6.8.3.1 - 3.8.3.1 Bearing Seals [Seite 352]
6.8.3.2 - 3.8.3.2 Lubrication [Seite 352]
6.8.3.3 - 3.8.3.3 ABS Sensors [Seite 353]
6.8.4 - 3.8.4 Wheel Bearing Manufacturing [Seite 355]
6.8.4.1 - 3.8.4.1 Rings and Flanges [Seite 355]
6.8.4.2 - 3.8.4.2 Cages and Rolling Elements [Seite 356]
6.8.4.3 - 3.8.4.3 Assembly [Seite 356]
6.8.5 - 3.8.5 Requirements, Design, and Testing [Seite 356]
6.8.5.1 - 3.8.5.1 Bearing Rotational Fatigue Strength [Seite 358]
6.8.5.2 - 3.8.5.2 Component Strength and Tilt Stiffness [Seite 360]
6.8.5.3 - 3.8.5.3 Verification by Testing [Seite 362]
6.8.6 - 3.8.6 Future Prospects [Seite 363]
6.9 - 3.9 Tires and Wheels [Seite 367]
6.9.1 - 3.9.1 Tire Requirements [Seite 367]
6.9.1.1 - 3.9.1.1 Properties and Performance [Seite 367]
6.9.1.2 - 3.9.1.2 Legal Requirements [Seite 369]
6.9.2 - 3.9.2 Types, Construction, and Materials [Seite 370]
6.9.2.1 - 3.9.2.1 Tire Types [Seite 370]
6.9.2.2 - 3.9.2.2 Tire Construction [Seite 371]
6.9.2.3 - 3.9.2.3 Tire Materials [Seite 371]
6.9.2.4 - 3.9.2.4 The Viscoelastic Properties of Rubber [Seite 372]
6.9.3 - 3.9.3 Transmission of Forces between the Tire and the Road Surface [Seite 373]
6.9.3.1 - 3.9.3.1 Supporting Force [Seite 373]
6.9.3.2 - 3.9.3.2 Adhesion Behavior and Lateral Force Buildup [Seite 374]
6.9.3.3 - 3.9.3.3 Tangential Forces: Driving and Braking [Seite 375]
6.9.3.4 - 3.9.3.4 Sideslip, Lateral Forces, and Aligning Moments [Seite 375]
6.9.3.5 - 3.9.3.5 Sideslip Stiffness [Seite 376]
6.9.3.6 - 3.9.3.6 Tire Behavior under Slip [Seite 378]
6.9.3.7 - 3.9.3.7 Tire Uniformity [Seite 379]
6.9.4 - 3.9.4 Tire Simulation Models [Seite 379]
6.9.4.1 - 3.9.4.1 Tire Models for Lateral Dynamics [Seite 379]
6.9.4.2 - 3.9.4.2 Tire Models Using Finite Elements (FEM) [Seite 381]
6.9.4.3 - 3.9.4.3 Tire Models for Vertical Dynamics [Seite 381]
6.9.4.4 - 3.9.4.4 Tire Vibration Modes [Seite 382]
6.9.4.5 - 3.9.4.5 Cavity Natural Frequencies [Seite 382]
6.9.4.6 - 3.9.4.6 Full Tire Models [Seite 383]
6.9.5 - 3.9.5 Modern Tire Technologies [Seite 385]
6.9.5.1 - 3.9.5.1 Tire Sensors [Seite 385]
6.9.5.2 - 3.9.5.2 Run-Flat Tires [Seite 387]
6.9.5.3 - 3.9.5.3 Tires and Control Systems [Seite 388]
6.9.5.4 - 3.9.5.4 High Performance (HP) and Ultra High Performance (UHP) Tires [Seite 389]
6.9.6 - 3.9.6 Vehicle Testing and Measurement [Seite 390]
6.9.6.1 - 3.9.6.1 Subjective Test Procedures [Seite 390]
6.9.6.2 - 3.9.6.2 Objective Test Procedures for Longitudinal Adhesion [Seite 391]
6.9.6.3 - 3.9.6.3 Objective Test Procedures for Lateral Adhesion [Seite 392]
6.9.6.4 - 3.9.6.4 Acoustics [Seite 393]
6.9.7 - 3.9.7 Laboratory Testing and Measurement Methods [Seite 393]
6.9.7.1 - 3.9.7.1 Basic Tire Test Rig Designs [Seite 393]
6.9.7.2 - 3.9.7.2 Strength Tests [Seite 394]
6.9.7.3 - 3.9.7.3 Measuring Tire Characteristics Using a Test Rig [Seite 394]
6.9.7.4 - 3.9.7.4 Measuring Tire Characteristics Using a Vehicle-Mounted Test Rig [Seite 394]
6.9.7.5 - 3.9.7.5 Measuring Tire Rolling Resistance [Seite 395]
6.9.7.6 - 3.9.7.6 Measuring Uniformity and Geometry [Seite 395]
6.9.7.7 - 3.9.7.7 Roadway Measurement and Modeling [Seite 397]
6.9.7.8 - 3.9.7.8 Power Loss Analysis [Seite 397]
6.9.7.9 - 3.9.7.9 Tire Temperature Measurement [Seite 398]
6.9.8 - 3.9.8 The Future of Tire Technology [Seite 399]
6.9.8.1 - 3.9.8.1 Material Developments [Seite 399]
6.9.8.2 - 3.9.8.2 Energy Saving Tires [Seite 399]
7 - 4 Axles and Suspensions [Seite 403]
7.1 - 4.1 Rigid Axles [Seite 405]
7.1.1 - 4.1.1 The De Dion Driven Rigid Axle [Seite 407]
7.1.2 - 4.1.2 Rigid Axles with Longitudinal Leaf Springs [Seite 407]
7.1.3 - 4.1.3 Rigid Axles with Longitudinal and Lateral Links [Seite 408]
7.1.4 - 4.1.4 Rigid Parabolic Axles with a Central Joint and Lateral Control Links [Seite 409]
7.2 - 4.2 Semi-Rigid Axles [Seite 409]
7.2.1 - 4.2.1 Twist Beam Axles [Seite 410]
7.2.1.1 - 4.2.1.1 Torsion-Type Twist Beam Axles [Seite 411]
7.2.1.2 - 4.2.1.2 Standard Twist Beam Axles [Seite 411]
7.2.1.3 - 4.2.1.3 Coupling-Type Twist Beam Axles [Seite 412]
7.2.2 - 4.2.2 The Dynamic Twist Beam Axle [Seite 412]
7.3 - 4.3 Independent Suspension [Seite 413]
7.3.1 - 4.3.1 Independent Suspension Kinematics [Seite 413]
7.3.2 - 4.3.2 The Advantages of Independent Suspension [Seite 415]
7.3.3 - 4.3.3 Single-Link Independent Suspension Systems [Seite 415]
7.3.3.1 - 4.3.3.1 Trailing Link Independent Suspension [Seite 416]
7.3.3.2 - 4.3.3.2 Semi-Trailing Link Independent Suspension [Seite 417]
7.3.3.3 - 4.3.3.3 Screw-Link Independent Suspension [Seite 418]
7.3.4 - 4.3.4 Two-Link Independent Suspension [Seite 418]
7.3.4.1 - 4.3.4.1 Lateral-Longitudinal Swing Axles [Seite 418]
7.3.4.2 - 4.3.4.2 Trapezoidal Link with One Lateral Link (Audi 100 Quattro) [Seite 419]
7.3.4.3 - 4.3.4.3 Trapezoidal Link with One Flexible Lateral Link (Porsche Weissach Axle) [Seite 419]
7.3.5 - 4.3.5 Three-Link Independent Suspension [Seite 419]
7.3.5.1 - 4.3.5.1 Central Link Independent Suspension [Seite 419]
7.3.5.2 - 4.3.5.2 Double Wishbone Independent Suspension [Seite 420]
7.3.6 - 4.3.6 Four-Link Independent Suspension [Seite 422]
7.3.6.1 - 4.3.6.1 Rear Axle Multi-Link Independent Suspension [Seite 422]
7.3.6.2 - 4.3.6.2 Multi-Link Suspension with Two Lower Two-Point Links [Seite 423]
7.3.6.3 - 4.3.6.3 Trapezoidal (Integral) Link Suspension [Seite 423]
7.3.6.4 - 4.3.6.4 Two Longitudinal and Two Lateral Links [Seite 424]
7.3.6.5 - 4.3.6.5 One Longitudinal and Three Lateral Links [Seite 424]
7.3.6.6 - 4.3.6.6 One Diagonal and Three Lateral Links [Seite 425]
7.3.7 - 4.3.7 Five-Link Independent Suspension [Seite 426]
7.3.7.1 - 4.3.7.1 Five-Link Front Suspension (SLA with two Decomposed 3-Point Links) [Seite 426]
7.3.7.2 - 4.3.7.2 Five-Link Rear Suspension [Seite 426]
7.3.8 - 4.3.8 Strut-Type Suspension Systems [Seite 427]
7.4 - 4.4 Front Axle Suspension [Seite 430]
7.4.1 - 4.4.1 Front Axle Suspension System Requirements [Seite 430]
7.4.2 - 4.4.2 Front Axle Components [Seite 432]
7.4.3 - 4.4.3 Front Axle Suspension Types [Seite 432]
7.4.3.1 - 4.4.3.1 McPherson with Upper Strut Brace [Seite 432]
7.4.3.2 - 4.4.3.2 McPherson withOptimized Lower Control Arm [Seite 432]
7.4.3.3 - 4.4.3.3 McPherson withDecomposed Lower Control Arm [Seite 432]
7.4.3.4 - 4.4.3.4 McPherson with Two-Piece Wheel Carrier [Seite 433]
7.4.3.5 - 4.4.3.5 Double Wishbone with Decomposed Control Arms [Seite 433]
7.5 - 4.5 Rear Axle Suspension [Seite 434]
7.5.1 - 4.5.1 Rear Axle Suspension Requirements [Seite 434]
7.5.2 - 4.5.2 Rear Axle Components [Seite 434]
7.5.3 - 4.5.3 Rear Axle Suspension Types [Seite 434]
7.5.3.1 - 4.5.3.1 Non-Driven Rear Axles [Seite 434]
7.5.3.2 - 4.5.3.2 Driven Rear Axles [Seite 434]
7.5.4 - 4.5.4 ULSAS Rear Axle Benchmark [Seite 435]
7.6 - 4.6 Design Catalog for Axle Type Selection [Seite 436]
7.7 - 4.7 The Chassis as a Complete System [Seite 436]
7.7.1 - 4.7.1 Front / Rear Axle Interaction [Seite 436]
7.8 - 4.8 Future Suspension Systems [Seite 438]
7.8.1 - 4.8.1 Axles of the Past 20 Years [Seite 438]
7.8.2 - 4.8.2 Relative Popularity of Various Current Axle Designs [Seite 438]
7.8.3 - 4.8.3 Future Axle Designs (Trends) [Seite 438]
8 - 5 Ride Comfort and NVH [Seite 441]
8.1 - 5.1 Fundamentals: NVH and the Human Body [Seite 441]
8.1.1 - 5.1.1 Concepts and Definitions [Seite 441]
8.1.2 - 5.1.2 Sources of Vibrations, Oscillations, and Noise [Seite 442]
8.1.3 - 5.1.3 Limits of Human Perception [Seite 443]
8.1.4 - 5.1.4 Human Comfort and Well-Being [Seite 444]
8.1.5 - 5.1.5 Mitigation of Oscillation and Noise [Seite 445]
8.2 - 5.2 Bonded Rubber Components [Seite 446]
8.2.1 - 5.2.1 Bonded Rubber Component Functions [Seite 446]
8.2.1.1 - 5.2.1.1 Transferring Forces [Seite 446]
8.2.1.2 - 5.2.1.2 Enabling Defined Movements [Seite 446]
8.2.1.3 - 5.2.1.3 Noise Isolation [Seite 447]
8.2.1.4 - 5.2.1.4 Vibration Damping [Seite 448]
8.2.2 - 5.2.2 The Specific Definition of Elastomeric Components [Seite 449]
8.2.2.1 - 5.2.2.1 Force-Displacement Curves [Seite 449]
8.2.2.2 - 5.2.2.2 Damping [Seite 449]
8.2.2.3 - 5.2.2.3 Setting [Seite 450]
8.3 - 5.3 Engine and Transmission Mounts [Seite 451]
8.4 - 5.4 Chassis and Suspension Mounts and Bushings [Seite 455]
8.4.1 - 5.4.1 Rubber Bushings [Seite 455]
8.4.2 - 5.4.2 Sliding Bushings [Seite 456]
8.4.3 - 5.4.3 Hydraulically-Damped Bushings (Hydro Bushings) [Seite 457]
8.4.4 - 5.4.4 Chassis Subframe Mounts [Seite 460]
8.4.5 - 5.4.5 Upper Strut Bearings and Damper Mounts [Seite 461]
8.4.6 - 5.4.6 Twist Beam Axle Mounts [Seite 463]
8.5 - 5.5 Future Component Designs [Seite 464]
8.5.1 - 5.5.1 Sensors [Seite 465]
8.5.2 - 5.5.2 Switchable Chassis Mounts [Seite 465]
8.6 - 5.6 Computation Methods [Seite 466]
8.7 - 5.7 Acoustic Evaluation ofBonded Rubber Components [Seite 467]
9 - 6 Chassis Development [Seite 469]
9.1 - 6.1 The Development Process [Seite 469]
9.2 - 6.2 Project Management (PM) [Seite 475]
9.3 - 6.3 The Planning and Definition Phase [Seite 475]
9.3.1 - 6.3.1 Target Cascading [Seite 476]
9.4 - 6.4 The Concept Phase [Seite 477]
9.5 - 6.5 Computer-Aided Engineering [Seite 477]
9.5.1 - 6.5.1 Multi-Body Simulation (MBS) [Seite 478]
9.5.1.1 - 6.5.1.1 MBS Chassis and Suspension Models in ADAMS/Car [Seite 478]
9.5.1.2 - 6.5.1.2 CAD Chassis Models and Multi-Body Systems [Seite 478]
9.5.1.3 - 6.5.1.3 Multi-Body Simulation with Rigid and Flexible MBS [Seite 479]
9.5.1.4 - 6.5.1.4 Multi-Body Simulations Using Whole-Vehicle, Chassis, and Axle Models [Seite 480]
9.5.1.5 - 6.5.1.5 Effects of Manufacturing Tolerances on Kinematic Parameters [Seite 481]
9.5.2 - 6.5.2 Finite Element Method (FEM) [Seite 482]
9.5.2.1 - 6.5.2.1 Classification of Analyses [Seite 482]
9.5.2.2 - 6.5.2.2 Strength Analyses [Seite 483]
9.5.2.3 - 6.5.2.3 Stiffness Analyses [Seite 483]
9.5.2.4 - 6.5.2.4 Natural Frequency Analyses [Seite 483]
9.5.2.5 - 6.5.2.5 Service Life and Durability Analyses [Seite 484]
9.5.2.6 - 6.5.2.6 Crash Simulations [Seite 484]
9.5.2.7 - 6.5.2.7 Topology and Shape Optimization [Seite 484]
9.5.2.8 - 6.5.2.8 Simulations of Manufacturing Processes [Seite 486]
9.5.3 - 6.5.3 Whole-Vehicle Simulations [Seite 486]
9.5.3.1 - 6.5.3.1 Vehicle Handling and Dynamic Simulations [Seite 486]
9.5.3.2 - 6.5.3.2 Kinematics and Elastokinematics [Seite 486]
9.5.3.3 - 6.5.3.3 Standard Load Cases [Seite 487]
9.5.3.4 - 6.5.3.4 MBS Model Verification [Seite 488]
9.5.3.5 - 6.5.3.5 NVH [Seite 488]
9.5.3.6 - 6.5.3.6 Loads Management (Load Cascading from Systems to Components) [Seite 490]
9.5.3.7 - 6.5.3.7 Whole-Vehicle Durability Simulations [Seite 494]
9.5.3.8 - 6.5.3.8 Whole-Vehicle Handling Fingerprint [Seite 494]
9.5.3.9 - 6.5.3.9 Specification of Elastokinematics Using Control-System Methods [Seite 495]
9.5.4 - 6.5.4 3D Modeling Software (CAD) [Seite 496]
9.5.5 - 6.5.5 Integrated Simulation Environment [Seite 497]
9.5.5.1 - 6.5.5.1 Kinematic Analysis Using ABE Software [Seite 497]
9.5.5.2 - 6.5.5.2 The Virtual Product Development Environment (VPE) [Seite 500]
9.6 - 6.6 Series Development and Validation [Seite 502]
9.6.1 - 6.6.1 Design [Seite 502]
9.6.1.1 - 6.6.1.1 Component Design [Seite 503]
9.6.1.2 - 6.6.1.2 Package Volume [Seite 504]
9.6.1.3 - 6.6.1.3 Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) [Seite 505]
9.6.1.4 - 6.6.1.4 Tolerance Investigations [Seite 505]
9.6.2 - 6.6.2 Validation [Seite 505]
9.6.2.1 - 6.6.2.1 Prototypes [Seite 505]
9.6.2.2 - 6.6.2.2 Validation Using Test Rigs [Seite 505]
9.6.2.3 - 6.6.2.3 Roadway Simulation Test Rig [Seite 508]
9.6.3 - 6.6.3 Whole-Vehicle Validation [Seite 509]
9.6.4 - 6.6.4 Optimization and Fine-Tuning [Seite 510]
9.7 - 6.7 Development ActivitiesDuring Series Production [Seite 510]
9.8 - 6.8 Summary and Future Prospects [Seite 511]
10 - 7 Chassis Control Systems [Seite 513]
10.1 - 7.1 Chassis Electronics [Seite 513]
10.2 - 7.2 Electronic Chassis ControlSystems [Seite 513]
10.2.1 - 7.2.1 Domains [Seite 513]
10.2.2 - 7.2.2 Longitudinal Dynamic Control Systems - Wheel Slip Regulation [Seite 514]
10.2.2.1 - 7.2.2.1 Braking Control [Seite 514]
10.2.2.2 - 7.2.2.2 Electronically-Controlled Center Differentials [Seite 514]
10.2.2.3 - 7.2.2.3 Torque-On-Demand Transfer Cases [Seite 514]
10.2.2.4 - 7.2.2.4 Electronically-ControlledAxle Differentials [Seite 515]
10.2.2.5 - 7.2.2.5 Axle Drive for Lateral Torque Distribution [Seite 516]
10.2.3 - 7.2.3 Lateral Dynamic Control Systems [Seite 517]
10.2.3.1 - 7.2.3.1 Electric Power Steering Systems (EPS) [Seite 517]
10.2.3.2 - 7.2.3.2 Superimposed Steering [Seite 518]
10.2.3.3 - 7.2.3.3 Active Rear-Wheel Steering [Seite 518]
10.2.3.4 - 7.2.3.4 Active Rear-Axle Kinematics [Seite 519]
10.2.4 - 7.2.4 Vertical Dynamic Control Systems [Seite 519]
10.2.4.1 - 7.2.4.1 Variable Dampers [Seite 519]
10.2.4.2 - 7.2.4.2 Active Stabilizers [Seite 521]
10.2.4.3 - 7.2.4.3 Active Leveling Systems [Seite 521]
10.2.5 - 7.2.5 Safety Requirements [Seite 522]
10.2.6 - 7.2.6 Bus Systems [Seite 523]
10.2.6.1 - 7.2.6.1 CAN [Seite 523]
10.2.6.2 - 7.2.6.2 FlexRay [Seite 523]
10.3 - 7.3 System Networking [Seite 523]
10.3.1 - 7.3.1 Vehicle Dynamic Control (VDC) [Seite 523]
10.3.2 - 7.3.2 Torque Vectoring [Seite 525]
10.3.3 - 7.3.3 Vertical Dynamic Management [Seite 526]
10.4 - 7.4 Functional Integration [Seite 526]
10.4.1 - 7.4.1 System Architecture [Seite 526]
10.4.2 - 7.4.2 Standard Interfaces [Seite 527]
10.4.3 - 7.4.3 Smart Actuators [Seite 528]
10.5 - 7.5 Chassis Control System [Seite 528]
10.5.1 - 7.5.1 Simulation Models [Seite 529]
10.5.2 - 7.5.2 Hardware-in-the-Loop Simulation [Seite 530]
10.6 - 7.6 Mechatronic Chassis Systems [Seite 531]
10.6.1 - 7.6.1 Longitudinal Dynamics [Seite 531]
10.6.1.1 - 7.6.1.1 Powertrain Systems [Seite 532]
10.6.1.2 - 7.6.1.2 Braking Systems [Seite 534]
10.6.2 - 7.6.2 Lateral Dynamics [Seite 536]
10.6.2.1 - 7.6.2.1 Front-Wheel Steering Systems [Seite 536]
10.6.2.2 - 7.6.2.2 Rear-Wheel Steering Systems [Seite 537]
10.6.2.3 - 7.6.2.3 Roll Stabilization Systems [Seite 540]
10.6.2.4 - 7.6.2.4 Active Kinematics [Seite 543]
10.6.3 - 7.6.3 Vertical Dynamics [Seite 546]
10.6.3.1 - 7.6.3.1 System Requirements [Seite 546]
10.6.3.2 - 7.6.3.2 Classification of Vertical Dynamic Systems [Seite 546]
10.6.3.3 - 7.6.3.3 Damping Systems [Seite 547]
10.6.3.4 - 7.6.3.4 Active Leveling Systems [Seite 551]
10.6.3.5 - 7.6.3.5 Current Active Spring Systems [Seite 552]
10.6.3.6 - 7.6.3.6 Fully Active Integrated Suspension Systems [Seite 555]
10.6.3.7 - 7.6.3.7 Pivots (Bushings, Joints, Mounts) [Seite 557]
10.7 - 7.7 X-by-wire [Seite 559]
10.7.1 - 7.7.1 Steer-by-wire [Seite 559]
10.7.2 - 7.7.2 Brake-by-wire [Seite 560]
10.7.2.1 - 7.7.2.1 Electrohydraulic Braking (EHB) [Seite 561]
10.7.2.2 - 7.7.2.2 Electromechanical Braking(EMB) Systems [Seite 561]
10.7.2.3 - 7.7.2.3 The ContiTeves Electromechanical Brake [Seite 562]
10.7.2.4 - 7.7.2.4 Radial (Full-Contact) Disc Brakes [Seite 562]
10.7.2.5 - 7.7.2.5 Wedge Brake [Seite 564]
10.7.3 - 7.7.3 Leveling-by-wire [Seite 565]
10.8 - 7.8 Driver Assistance Systems [Seite 565]
10.8.1 - 7.8.1 Braking Assistance Systems [Seite 565]
10.8.1.1 - 7.8.1.1 Safety-Relevant Braking Assistance [Seite 566]
10.8.1.2 - 7.8.1.2 Comfort-Oriented Braking Assistance [Seite 567]
10.8.1.3 - 7.8.1.3 Braking Assistance System Requirements [Seite 567]
10.8.2 - 7.8.2 Distance Assistance Systems [Seite 568]
10.8.3 - 7.8.3 Steering Assistance Systems [Seite 569]
10.8.3.1 - 7.8.3.1 Steering Assistance Using Adaptive Assistance Torques [Seite 569]
10.8.3.2 - 7.8.3.2 Steering Assistance Using Additional Steering Torque [Seite 569]
10.8.3.3 - 7.8.3.3 Steering Assistance Using a Supplemental Steer Angle [Seite 570]
10.8.3.4 - 7.8.3.4 Summary [Seite 571]
10.8.4 - 7.8.4 Parking Assistance Systems [Seite 571]
10.8.4.1 - 7.8.4.1 Introduction [Seite 571]
10.8.4.2 - 7.8.4.2 Parking Space Recognition [Seite 571]
10.8.4.3 - 7.8.4.3 Parallel Parking [Seite 573]
10.8.4.4 - 7.8.4.4 Steering Actuators [Seite 574]
11 - 8 The Future of Chassis Technology [Seite 577]
11.1 - 8.1 Chassis System Concepts - Focus on Customer Value [Seite 577]
11.1.1 - 8.1.1 Choosing Handling Behavior [Seite 577]
11.1.2 - 8.1.2 Diversification of Vehicle Concepts - Stabilization of Chassis Concepts [Seite 579]
11.1.2.1 - 8.1.2.1 Front Suspension as of 2004 [Seite 579]
11.1.2.2 - 8.1.2.2 Rear Suspension as of 2004 [Seite 580]
11.1.3 - 8.1.3 The Future of Chassis Subsystems and Components [Seite 580]
11.1.3.1 - 8.1.3.1 The Future of Axle Drive Units [Seite 580]
11.1.3.2 - 8.1.3.2 The Future of Braking Systems [Seite 581]
11.1.3.3 - 8.1.3.3 The Future of Steering Systems [Seite 581]
11.1.3.4 - 8.1.3.4 The Future of Suspension Spring Systems [Seite 581]
11.1.3.5 - 8.1.3.5 The Future of Dampers [Seite 581]
11.1.3.6 - 8.1.3.6 The Future of Wheel Control Components [Seite 581]
11.1.3.7 - 8.1.3.7 The Future of Wheel Bearings [Seite 581]
11.1.3.8 - 8.1.3.8 The Future of Tires and Wheels [Seite 581]
11.2 - 8.2 Electronic Chassis Systems [Seite 581]
11.2.1 - 8.2.1 Electronic Assistance Systems and Networking [Seite 581]
11.2.2 - 8.2.2 Networking Chassis Control Systems [Seite 582]
11.2.2.1 - 8.2.2.1 Peaceful Coexistence [Seite 582]
11.2.2.2 - 8.2.2.2 Integral Control [Seite 583]
11.2.2.3 - 8.2.2.3 Networked Control [Seite 583]
11.2.2.4 - 8.2.2.4 Performance / Efficiency [Seite 584]
11.2.2.5 - 8.2.2.5 System Safety [Seite 584]
11.2.2.6 - 8.2.2.6 The Development Process [Seite 584]
11.2.2.7 - 8.2.2.7 Data Transmission Requirements [Seite 585]
11.2.2.8 - 8.2.2.8 Summary [Seite 585]
11.3 - 8.3 The Future of X-by-Wire Systems [Seite 585]
11.4 - 8.4 Intelligent and Predictive Future Chassis Systems [Seite 586]
11.4.1 - 8.4.1 Sensors [Seite 587]
11.4.2 - 8.4.2 Actuators [Seite 587]
11.4.3 - 8.4.3 Predictive Driving [Seite 588]
11.5 - 8.5 Hybrid Vehicles [Seite 590]
11.6 - 8.6 The Rolling/Driving Chassis [Seite 591]
11.7 - 8.7 The Vision of Autonomous Vehicle Control [Seite 592]
11.8 - 8.8 Future Scenarios for Vehicle and Chassis Technology [Seite 593]
11.9 - 8.9 Outlook [Seite 596]
12 - Index [Seite 599]
