Advances in Energy Storage

Name: Advances in Energy Storage | Latest Developments from R&D to the Market
Brand: Wiley-ISTE
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Latest Developments from R&D to the Market

Andreas Hauer(Editor)

Wiley-ISTE (Publisher)

1st Edition

Published on 23. March 2022

928 pages

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978-1-119-76014-6 (ISBN)

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ADVANCES IN ENERGY STORAGE

An accessible reference describing the newest advancements in energy storage technologies

Advances in Energy Storage: Latest Developments from R&D to the Market is a comprehensive exploration of a wide range of energy storage technologies that use the fundamental energy conversion method. The distinguished contributors discuss the foundational principles, common materials, construction, device operation, and system level performance of the technology, as well as real-world applications. The book also includes examinations of the industry standards that apply to energy storage technologies and the commercial status of various kinds of energy storage.

The book has been written by accomplished leaders in the field and address electrochemical, chemical, thermal, mechanical, and superconducting magnetic energy storage. They offer insightful treatments of relevant policy instruments and posit likely future advancements that will support and stimulate energy storage.

Advances in Energy Storage also includes:

A thorough introduction to electrochemical, electrical, and super magnetic energy storage, including foundational electrochemistry concepts used in modern power sources
A comprehensive exploration of mechanical energy storage and pumped hydro energy storage
Practical discussions of compressed air energy storage and flywheels, including the geology, history, and development of air energy storage
In-depth examinations of thermal energy storage, including new material developments for latent and thermochemical heat storage

Perfect for practicing electrical engineers, mechanical engineers, and materials scientists, Advances in Energy Storage: Latest Developments from R&D to the Market is also an indispensable reference for researchers and graduate students in these fields.

Andreas Hauer studied Physics at the Ludwig-Maximilians-University in Munich, Germany, and completed his PhD at the Technical University in Berlin. He is currently Director of the Bavarian Center for Applied Energy Research, ZAE Bayern, where he is responsible for a number of national and international research projects. Dr. Hauer is an internationally renowned expert on energy storage systems in general, specializing in thermal energy storage.

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Content

Intro
Advances in Energy Storage
Contents
List of Contributors
1 Energy Storage Solutions for Future Energy Systems
1.1 The Role of Energy Storage
1.2 The Definition of Energy Storage
1.2.1 What is an Energy Storage?
1.2.2 What is Actually Stored?
1.2.3 Energy Storage System and Its Application
1.2.4 Energy and Power Storage
1.2.5 Temporal Mismatch between Supply and Demand
1.3 Technologies for Energy Storage
1.3.1 How Can Energy be Stored?
1.3.2 Structure of Energy Storage Technologies
1.4 Applications for Energy Storage
1.4.1 List of Applications
1.4.2 Energy Storage Configurations and New Fields of Application
Part I Electrochemical, Electrical, and Super Magnetic Energy Storages
2 An Introduction to Electrochemistry in Modern Power Sources
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Electrode Reactions
2.3 Electrochemical Cells
2.4 The Case for Electrochemical Power Sources
2.5 The Thermodynamics of Electrochemical Cells
2.6 The Actual Cell Voltage: Thermodynamic, Electrode Kinetic, and Ohmic Losses
2.7 Faraday's Laws and Charge Capacity
2.8 The Performance of Cells: Charge Capacity and Specific Energy Capability
2.9 Types of Electrochemical Device for Energy Conversion
3 Standalone Batteries for Power Backup and Energy Storage
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Standalone Battery Technologies
3.2.1 Lead-acid Battery
3.2.2 Lithium-ion Battery
3.2.3 Redox Flow Batteries
3.2.4 Sodium-Sulfur Battery
3.3 Comparisons
3.4 Conclusions
4 Environmental Aspects and Recycling of Battery Materials
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Classical Batteries
4.3 Summary
4.4 Future Perspectives
4.5 Future Developments
5 Supercapacitors for Short-term, High Power Energy Storage
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Electrode Materials
5.2.1 Carbons
5.2.2 Conducting Polymers
5.2.3 Metal Oxides/Hydroxides
5.2.4 Other Metal Compounds
5.3 Supercapacitor Devices
5.3.1 Symmetric Supercapacitors
5.3.2 Asymmetric (Hybrid) Supercapacitors
5.4 Conclusions
5.4.1 Materials
5.4.2 Devices
5.5 Outlook
5.5.1 The Importance of Materials
6 Overview of Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage Technology
6.1 Introduction
6.2 The Principle of SMES
6.2.1 The Configuration of SMES
6.2.2 The Components of SMES
6.3 Development Status of SMES
6.3.1 SMES with LTc Superconductor
6.3.2 SMES with HTc Superconductor
6.3.3 Simulation Research about the Application of SMES in a Power Grid
6.4 Development Trend of SMES
6.4.1 Promising Ways to Develop SMES
6.4.2 Promising Applications of SMES
6.5 Research Topics for Developing SMES
6.5.1 Key Problems Concerned with SMES Components
6.5.2 Key Problems Concerned with SMES Operation
6.6 Conclusions
7 Key Technologies of Superconducting Magnets for SMES
7.1 Introduction
7.1.1 Key Parameters of SMES Magnets
7.1.2 Structures of SMES Magnets
7.2 The Development of SMES Magnets
7.2.1 LTS SMES
7.2.2 HTS SMES
7.3 Considerations in the Design of SMES Magnets
7.3.1 The Current-carrying Capacity
7.3.2 Mechanical Properties
7.3.3 AC Loss and the Cooling Design
7.3.4 Insulation Design
7.3.5 The Optimization Design and the Field-circuit Coupling Design
7.4 Current Leads of SMES Magnets
7.4.1 Classification of Current Leads
7.4.2 The Method of Designing Current Leads
7.4.3 Cases of Current Leads
7.5 Quench Protection for SMES Magnets
7.6 Summary
8 Testing Technologies for Developing SMES
8.1 Introduction
8.2 HTS Tape Property Test Method
8.2.1 HTS Tapes Critical Current Measurement
8.2.2 AC Loss Measurement of High Temperature Superconducting Tapes
8.3 Magnet Coils Experimental Methods
8.3.1 AC Loss Measurements of the Superconducting Coil
8.3.2 SMES Superconducting Magnet's Inductance Measurement
8.3.3 SMES Superconducting Magnet's Insulation Measurement
8.4 SMES Test
8.4.1 Preparation Work
8.4.2 Test of the Magnet
8.4.3 Test of Power Regulation Characteristic
8.4.4 Response Characteristic of an SMES System Test
8.5 Conclusions
9 Superconducting Wires and Tapes for SMES
9.1 Introduction
9.2 A Brief Explanation of Superconductivity
9.2.1 Zero Resistance and the Messiner Effect
9.2.2 Critical Parameters of a Superconductor
9.2.3 Type I and Type II Superconductors
9.2.4 Flux Motion and AC Loss
9.2.5 Stability of Superconducting Wires
9.2.6 Key Paramaters for Evaluating a Superconducting Wire
9.3 Wires Made from LTc Superconductors
9.3.1 NbTi
9.3.2 Nb3Sn
9.4 Wires or Tapes Made from HTc Superconductors
9.4.1 BSCCO-2223/Ag Tapes
9.4.2 REBCO Coated Conductors
9.4.3 BSCCO-2212
9.4.4 Research on Larger Current HTS Conductors
9.4.5 MgB2
9.5 Discussion
10 Cryogenic Technology
10.1 Introduction
10.1.1 Function of Cryogenic for SMES
10.1.2 Cool-down Method of Superconducting Magnets
10.2 Cryogens
10.2.1 Cryogenic Media
10.2.2 Helium (He)
10.2.3 Nitrogen (N2)
10.3 Cryo-cooler
10.3.1 Stirling Refrigerator
10.3.2 GM Refrigerator
10.3.3 Pulse Tube Refrigerator
10.3.4 Development Trends
10.4 Cryogenic System
10.4.1 Cryogenic System of Large-scale Magnet
10.4.2 Forced Cooling by Supercritical Helium
10.4.3 Conduction-cooled Method
10.5 Vacuum Technology
10.5.1 Vacuum Pump
10.5.2 Measurement of Vacuum
10.6 An Evaluation Method for Conduction-cooled SMES Cryogenic Cooling Systems
10.6.1 Definition of Factor
10.6.2 Evaluation Procedure
10.7 Case Study
10.7.1 Circulating Liquid Helium Cooling System
10.7.2 Cryo-cooler-cooled System
10.7.3 Cryo-cooler and Liquid-nitrogen/Gas-helium Combined Cooling System
11 Control Strategies for Different Application Modes of SMES
11.1 Overview of the Control Strategies for SMES Applications
11.2 Robust Control for SMES in Coordination with Wind Generators
11.2.1 Problem Formulation: Stability Issues Brought by Renewable Sources
11.2.2 System Modeling and Analysis
11.2.3 Robust Coordinative Control Strategy
11.2.4 Simulation, Observations, and Conclusion
11.3 Anti-windup Compensation for SMES-Based Power System Damping Controller
11.3.1 Major Concern on the Capacity of SMES
11.3.2 Problem Formulation
11.3.3 Anti-windup Compensation Scheme
11.3.4 Simulation Validation
11.4 Monitoring and Control Unit of SMES
11.4.1 General Functionalities of the MCU for SMES
11.4.2 Design and Implementation
11.4.3 Laboratory and Field Tests
11.5 Conclusion
Part II Mechanical Energy Storage and Pumped Hydro Energy Storage
12 Overview of Pumped Hydro Resource
12.1 Pumped Hydro Storage Basic Concepts
12.1.1 PHS Schematic Drawing
12.1.2 Pumping and Generating Cycles
12.1.3 PHS Basic Math. Calculation
12.1.4 Sub-types of PHS
12.1.5 PHS A Complex and Multidisciplinary Project
12.2 Historic Perspective
12.2.1 Before and Around 1900
12.2.2 From 1920 to 1960
12.2.3 From 1960 to 2000
12.2.4 After 2000
12.3 Worldwide Installed Base
12.4 The Future for PHS
13 Pumped Storage Machines - Motor Generators
13.1 Synchronous Machine Fixed Speed
13.1.1 Operating Principle and Components
13.1.2 Excitation System
13.1.3 Converters for Grid Connection
13.1.4 Power Chart
13.1.5 Load Change (P/M/n - Curve)
13.1.6 Advantages/Disadvantages
13.2 Doubly fed Induction Machine Adjustable Speed (DFIM)
13.2.1 History
13.2.2 Operating Principle and Components
13.2.3 Converters for Grid Connection
13.2.4 Load Chance (P/M/n - Curve)
13.2.5 Advantages/Disadvantages
13.2.6 Comparison of Doubly Feed Induction Machine (DFIM) with Fixed Speed Synchronous Machine
13.3 Synchronous Machine Adjustable Speed (FFIM)
13.3.1 Operating Principle and Components
13.3.2 Converters for Grid Connection
13.3.3 Advantages/Disadvantages
13.3.4 Comparison of DFIM and FFIM
14 Pumped Storage Machines - Ternary Units
14.1 Ternary Units
14.1.1 Introduction
14.1.2 System of Pumped Storage Plant with Ternary Units
14.1.3 Arrangement and Machine Concepts of Ternary Units
14.1.4 Advantages of Ternary Units and Comparison to Pump Turbines
14.1.5 Examples of Pumped Storage Plants with Ternary Units
15 Hydro-Mechanical Equipment
15.1 Steel-lined Pressure Conduits
15.1.1 Introduction
15.1.2 General Layout of Pumped Storage Pressure Conduits
15.1.3 Loading Conditions and Main Analytical Approaches
15.1.4 Safety Concepts and Application of Standards
15.1.5 Aspects of Material Choice
15.2 Typical Control and Shut-Off Devices for Pumped Storage Plants
15.2.1 General Arrangement of Control and Shut-Off Devices
15.2.2 Gates and their Main Applications
15.2.3 Valves and their Main Applications
16 Pumped Storage Machines - Hydraulic Short-circuit Operation
16.1 Hydraulic Short-circuit Operation
16.1.1 Introduction
16.1.2 Regulation of Hydro Turbines and Storage Pumps
16.1.3 Example of Hydraulic Short-circuit
16.1.4 Purpose and Efficiency
16.1.5 Different Power Plant Concepts
16.1.6 Hydraulic Short-circuit with Ternary Units
16.1.7 Hydraulic Short-circuit with Multi-shaft Arrangements
16.1.8 Comparison of Concepts
16.1.9 Implementation Hydraulic Short Circuit in Existing Plants
Part III Mechanical Energy Storage, Compressed Air Energy Storage, and Flywheels
17 Compressed Air Energy Storage: Are the Market and Technical Knowledge Ready?
17.1 Introduction
17.1.1 Need for Electricity Storage
17.1.2 Isothermal Compressed Air Energy Storage and Adiabatic Compressed Air Energy Storage
17.2 Historical Developments
17.2.1 Huntorf, Germany
17.2.2 McIntosh
17.2.3 Other Large-scale Projects
17.3 Challenges Raised by Air Storage in Salt Caverns
17.3.1 Introduction
17.3.2 Thermomechanical Behavior of Salt Caverns
17.3.3 Materials
17.4 (Selected) Recent Projects
17.5 Business Case
17.5.1 Various Possible Sources of Revenue
17.5.2 Number of Days in Operation
17.5.3 Cost Structure of Isothermal and Adiabatic CAES
17.5.4 (Simple) Revenue Models of Both Plants
17.6 Conclusion
18 The Geology, Historical Background, and Developments in CAES
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Operational Modes - Diabatic, Adiabatic, Isothermal (Heat), Isochoric, and Isobaric (Pressure) Operations
18.3 Brief Review of the Historical Origins of CAES - How It All Began and Where It Is Now
18.4 Overview of Underground (Geological) Storage Options
18.4.1 Solution-mined Salt Caverns
18.4.2 Porous Rock - Depleted Hydrocarbon Fields and Saline Aquifers
18.4.3 Abandoned Mines - Salt and Non-salt
18.4.4 Mined Voids (URC) - Unlined New Rock Caverns in Halite and Non-halite Rocks
18.4.5 Lined Rock Caverns (LRC)
18.5 Summary
19 Compressed Air Energy Storage in Aquifer and Depleted Gas Storage Reservoirs
19.1 Introduction
19.2 History of CAES Development
19.3 Power Train Requirements
19.3.1 Required Air Mass Flow Rate
19.3.2 Required Flowing Air Pressure
19.4 How Does a CAES Energy Storage System Work? Matching the Storage System to CAES Power Train Requirements
19.4.1 CAES in a Depleted Gas Reservoir
19.4.2 Matching the CAES Storage System to the Turbo-machinery
19.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of CAES in Aquifer Structures and Depleted Gas Reservoirs
19.5.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of CAES in Aquifer Structures
19.5.2 Advantage of CAES in Depleted Gas Reservoirs
19.5.3 Disadvantages of CAES in Depleted Gas Reservoirs
19.6 CAES Storage System Design Tools, Development, and Operation
19.7 Summary
20 Open Accumulator Isothermal Compressed Air Energy Storage (OA-ICAES) System
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Open Accumulator Isothermal Compressed Air Energy Storage (OA-ICAES) System Architecture
20.3 Liquid Piston Isothermal Compressor/Expander
20.3.1 Porous Media Heat Exchange Modelling and Design
20.3.2 Optimization of Compression/Expansion Trajectory, Porous Medium Distribution, and Chamber Shape
20.3.3 Efficient Power-take-off via an Adjustable Linkage Liquid Piston Pump/Motor
20.4 Using Water Droplet Spray to Enhance Heat Transfer
20.5 Systems and Control
20.6 Discussion
20.7 Conclusions
Part IV Chemical Energy Storage
21 Hydrogen (or Syngas) Generation - Solar Thermal
21.1 Introduction
21.1.1 Storage of Solar Energy in Chemical Bonds
21.1.2 Solar Concentration and Absorption as Heat
21.2 Solar Thermochemical Processes
21.2.1 Solar Reforming Processes
21.2.2 Solar Driven Thermolysis
21.2.3 Thermochemical Redox Cycles - Background
21.2.4 Reaction Equilibrium
21.2.5 Iron Oxide Based Thermochemical Redox Cycles
21.2.6 Other Redox Cycles
21.2.7 Ceria-based Nonstoichiometric Redox Cycles
21.2.8 Efficiency of Redox Cycles
21.2.9 Experimental Demonstration of the Ceria Based Cycle
21.2.10 Emerging Redox Materials
22 Power-to-Liquids - Conversion of CO2 and Renewable H2 to Methanol
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Methanol Synthesis
22.3 Catalysts for Methanol Synthesis
22.4 Transitioning to Sustainable Methanol Production
22.5 Elaboration of a Methanol Economy
22.5.1 Sourcing Carbon for the "Circular" Production of Methanol
22.5.2 Example 1 - Steel Mill Gases
22.5.3 Example 2 - Carbon Recycling International (CRI)®
22.6 Conclusion and Summary
23 Hydrogenation Energy Recovery - Small Molecule Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers and Catalytic Dehydrogenation
23.1 Introduction
23.1.1 The Arguments for LOHCs
23.1.2 An Overview of High Potential C1 Molecules as LOHCs
23.1.3 The Ideal Concept Based on C1 Substrates
23.2 Methanol (CH3OH)
23.2.1 Homogeneous Catalytic Dehydrogenation
23.3 Formaldehyde/Methanediol (CH2O/CH2OHOH)
23.4 Formic Acid (HCO2H)
23.4.1 General Aspects, Thermodynamics, and Reversibility
23.4.2 Mechanistic Considerations
23.4.3 Homogeneous Catalysts for Formic Acid Dehydrogenation
23.5 Other Alcohols, Diols, and Amino Alcohols
23.5.1 General Aspects, Thermodynamics, and Reversibility
23.5.2 Mechanistic Considerations
23.5.3 Homogeneous Catalysts for Hydrogen Liberation from Alcohols, Diols, and Amino Alcohols
23.6 Summary and Outlook
24 Hydrogen Energy Recovery - H2-Based Fuel Cells
24.1 Introduction
24.1.1 Market Shares
24.2 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells
24.2.1 Structure of Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells
24.3 Topics of Research
24.3.1 Contamination
24.3.2 Water Management
24.3.3 Degradation
24.3.4 Estimation of Material Properties
24.4 Characterization Techniques
24.4.1 Electrochemical Techniques
24.4.2 Physical Techniques
24.5 Conclusions
Part V Thermal Energy Storage
25 Thermal Energy Storage - An Introduction
25.1 Introduction
25.1.1 Relevance of Thermal Energy Storage
25.1.2 Fields of Application
25.2 Characteristic Parameters of Thermal Energy Storage
25.2.1 Prologue: What Is Thermal Energy?
25.2.2 Storage Capacity
25.2.3 Thermal Power
25.2.4 Storage Efficiency
25.2.5 Storage Cycles
25.3 The Physical Storage Principle - Sensible, Latent, and Thermochemical
25.3.1 Sensible Storage of Thermal Energy
25.3.2 Latent Heat Storages
25.3.2.1 Heat of Fusion
25.3.3 Thermochemical Storage Processes
25.4 Design of a Thermal Energy Storage and Integration into an Energy System
25.4.1 From the Storage Material to the System
25.5 Thermal Energy Storage Classification
25.5.1 Which Demands Should the Storage Meet in Application?
25.6 Conclusions
26 New Phase Change Materials for Latent Heat Storage
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Fundamentals, Materials, Groups, and Properties
26.2.1 Fundamentals
26.2.2 PCMs Classification and Criteria for Selection
26.3 Currently Used and Emerging Phase Change Materials
26.3.1 Extensively Investigated PCMs
26.3.2 Emerging PCMs
26.4 Approaches to Improve PCMs' Properties
26.4.1 Composite PCMs Classification and Short Description
26.4.2 Advantages and Drawbacks Analysis
26.5 Commercial Status
26.6 Future Development Directions
27 Sorption Material Developments for TES Applications
27.1 Introduction
27.1.1 Thermochemical Heat Storage (TCS)
27.1.2 Basic Criteria for Suitable Sorption Materials
27.1.3 Determination of Sorption Properties
27.2 Sorption Materials
27.2.1 Traditional Sorption Materials
27.2.2 Innovative Sorption Materials
27.3 Future Developments
28 Vacuum Super Insulated Thermal Storage Systems for Buildings and Industrial Applications
28.1 Introduction
28.1.1 Thermal Storage Efficiency, Thermal Losses, and Temperature Decay
28.1.2 Conventional Storage Insulation
28.1.3 Development of Vacuum Super Insulated Storages
28.2 VSI with Expanded Perlite for Highly Efficient and Economical Thermal Storages
28.2.1 Fundamentals of VSI Storages
28.2.2 VSI Heat Storages for Temperatures up to 160°C
28.2.3 VSI Storage with Expanded Perlite at Medium and High Temperatures
28.3 Storage Media for Medium and High Temperatures
28.4 VSI and VSI Storages in Industrial Applications
28.4.1 Applications
28.4.2 Economic Considerations
28.4.3 Energetic Amortization Time
28.5 Conclusions
29 Heat Transfer Enhancement for Latent Heat Storage Components
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Heat Transfer Enhancement Techniques
29.2.1 Heat Transfer Enhancement between the HTF and the PCM
29.2.2 Heat Transfer Enhancement Within the PCM
29.3 Technology Development and Commercial Status
30 Reactor Design for Thermochemical Energy Storage Systems
30.1 Requirements for TCM Reactors
30.2 Charging and Discharging Processes in TCM Reactors
30.2.1 Heat Transfer
30.2.2 Mass Transfer
30.2.3 Pressure
30.3 Types of Reactors and Examples of Design Solutions
30.3.1 Fixed Bed
30.3.2 Fluidized Bed
30.3.3 Moving Bed
30.3.4 Liquid Flow
30.4 Conclusions and Outlook
31 Phase Change Materials in Buildings - State of the Art
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Materials
31.2.1 Overview Encapsulation Technologies
31.2.2 Overview on Products
31.3 Example of Building Integration of PCM
31.3.1 Example of Passive Decentral PCM System: Office Building in Tübingen from the 1950s Modernized to a Passive-house Standard [2]
31.3.2 Example of Passive Central PCM System: Courtyard Building Düsseldorf
31.3.3 Example of Active Decentral PCM System: Chilled Ceilings with Integrated PCMs in Würzburg
31.3.4 Example of Active Central Cold Storage: Office Building Stuttgart
31.3.5 Example of Active Central Heat Storage: Residential Building Weberstedt
31.4 Planning Boundary Conditions
31.4.1 RAL Quality Association PCM
31.4.2 ASTM C1784
31.4.3 VDI 2164
31.4.4 ISSO 111
31.5 Long Term Experience
31.5.1 Material Stability
31.5.2 Planning vs. Usage
32 Industrial Applications of Thermal Energy Storage Systems
32.1 Why Thermal Energy Storage in Industry?
32.1.1 Maximizing the Use of Renewable Energy Sources through TES
32.1.2 Process Integration and Storage
32.1.3 Industrial Surplus Heat as a Resource in a Sustainable Energy System
32.2 Integration of TES in Industrial Scale Applications
32.2.1 Combined Heat and Power and District Heating
32.2.2 District Cooling
32.2.3 Steel Industry
32.2.4 Pulp and Paper Industry
32.3 Mobile TES in Innovative Energy Distribution
32.4 Concluding Remarks
33 Economy of Thermal Energy Storage Systems in Different Applications
33.1 Introduction
33.2 Methods to Evaluate Thermal Energy Storage Economics
33.2.1 Top-down Approach
33.2.2 Bottom-up Approach
33.3 Comparison of Acceptable and Realized Storage Capacity Costs in Different TES Applications
33.4 Discussion on the Major Influencing Factors on the Economics of Thermal Energy Storage
33.5 Conclusions
Part VI Energy Storage Concepts, Regulations, and Markets
34 Energy Storage Can Stop Global Warming
34.1 Introduction
34.1.1 Energy Storage for Resilience of Critical Infrastructures
34.1.2 Energy Storage for Mitigating Climate Change
34.2 Energy Storage Technologies
34.3 Energy Storage Systems
34.4 The Potentials of Energy Storage
34.4.1 Optimizing Renewable Integration
34.4.2 Increasing Energy Efficiency
34.4.3 Energy Grid Stability
34.4.4 Flexibility in Energy Form
34.5 Policy Frameworks
34.6 Cross-cutting Aspects
34.7 Conclusions
35 Energy Storage Participation in Electricity Markets
35.1 Introduction
35.2 Classification of Energy Storage Options
35.2.1 Pumped-hydro Storage (PHS)
35.2.2 Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES)
35.2.3 Flywheels
35.2.4 Supercapacitors and Superconducting Magnet Energy Storage (SMES)
35.2.5 Battery Storage
35.2.6 Fuel Cells
35.2.7 Power-to-Gas (P2G)
35.3 Techno-economic Energy Storage Characteristics
35.3.1 Charge and Discharge Power and Duration
35.3.2 Losses and Efficiency
35.3.3 Lifetime
35.3.4 Volume and Mass
35.3.5 Cost
35.4 Energy Storage Applications
35.4.1 Energy Services
35.4.2 Grid Services
35.4.3 Reliability Services
35.4.4 Aggregation of Services
35.5 Interaction Market Opportunities and Technical Characteristics - Illustrative Case Studies
35.5.1 Efficiency and Cycle-life - Arbitrage
35.5.2 Energy-to-power Ratio - Arbitrage
35.5.3 Energy-to-power Ratio - Frequency Control
35.6 Conclusions
36 Public Perceptions and Acceptance of Energy Storage Technologies
36.1 Introduction
36.2 Why Resistance?
36.3 Who Will Resist?
36.3.1 Politicians and Public Authorities
36.3.2 Public Interest Groups (NGOs)
36.3.3 Groups in Direct Connection to the Projects
36.4 Cases
36.4.1 Borehole Storage (BTES) and Solar Thermal
36.4.2 Pit Heat Storage (PTES) and Solar Thermal I
36.4.3 Pit Heat Storage (PTES) and Solar Thermal II
36.4.4 Biogas Plant I
36.4.5 Biogas Plant II
36.4.6 Biogas Plant III
36.5 Drivers for Positive Public Perceptions and Acceptance
36.5.1 Drivers for Politicians and Public Authorities
36.5.2 Drivers for Public Interest Groups (NGOs)
36.5.3 Drivers for Groups in Direct Opposition to the Project
36.6 Is There a Manual for Citizen Involvement?
36.7 Perception of Acceptance of Energy Storage Technologies
37 Business Case for Energy Storage in Japan
37.1 Energy Consumption in Japan
37.2 Electricity Situation
37.2.1 Total Electric Power Generation by Energy Source
37.2.2 Daily Electric Demand and Annual Electric Load Factor
37.3 Climate Condition and Cooling/heating Load
37.4 Situation of Thermal Energy Storage (TES) Spread
37.5 Variation of TES
37.6 Water Storage
37.6.1 Temperature-Stratified Thermal Storage Tank
37.6.2 Multi-connected Mixing Type Tank
37.7 Ice Storage
37.7.1 Background
37.7.2 Classification of Freezing and Melting Methods
37.7.3 Low Temperature HVAC System
38 Energy Storage in the Electricity Market: Business Models and Regulatory Framework in Germany
38.1 Introduction
38.2 Business Models in Germany
38.2.1 Business Models "Before-the-meter"
38.2.2 Business Models "Behind-the-meter"
38.2.3 Mixed Business Models
38.3 Legal and Regulatory Framework - Opportunities and Barriers
38.3.1 Funding Programs
38.3.2 Legal and Regulatory Barriers to Energy Storage in Germany
38.3.3 Necessary Adjustments to Pave the Way into the Market
38.4 Conclusion and Outlook
39 Integration of Renewable Energy by Distributed Energy Storages
39.1 Introduction
39.2 Usage of Variable Renewable Energies and Induced Problems
39.3 Energy Balancing Technologies and Options
39.3.1 Demand-Side Flexibility/Demand Respond (DR) - Without New Electric Energy Storage
39.3.2 Supply-Side Flexibility - Without New Electric Energy Storage
39.4.3.3 New Electric Energy Storage
39.4 Applications for Electric Energy Storages (Adapted from [4])
39.5 Business Cases for Electric Energy Storages
39.6 Distributed Storage Concepts
39.7 Summary
40 Thermal Storages and Power to Heat
40.1 Introduction
40.2 Why Power to Heat?
40.2.1 The German Energy System
40.2.2 The Danish Energy System
40.3 Technologies for Power to Heat
40.3.1 Large-scale Heat Pumps
40.3.2 Small-scale Heat Pumps
40.3.3 Electric Boilers
40.4 Examples of Power to Heat Concepts
40.4.1 The SUNSTORE® Concept (Long-term Thermal Storage)
40.4.2 Heat Pump Using Ground Water in Rye, DK (Short-term Thermal Storage)
40.5 The Future. Smart Energy Systems
Index
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