
Lecture Notes: Clinical Anaesthesia
Description
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Perfect for medical students, junior doctors, anaesthetic nurses and allied health professionals, Lecture Notes Clinical Anaesthesia provides a thorough introduction to the modern principles and practices of clinical anaesthesia.
Full-colour diagrams, photographs and key fact boxes support easy understanding of the theory of anaesthetics allowing confident transfer of information into clinical practice.
This fourth edition has been fully revised and updated to reflect recent developments within the anaesthetics specialty and is fully supported by a wide-range of self-assessments for study and revision purposes together with a range of 'tips for anaesthesia attachments' that start each chapter.
Whether you need to develop your knowledge for clinical practice, or refresh that knowledge in the run-up to examinations, Lecture Notes Clinical Anaesthesia will help foster a systematic approach to the clinical situation for all medical students and hospital doctors.
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Content
1.1 - Contents [Seite 7]
1.2 - List of contributors [Seite 8]
1.3 - Preface [Seite 9]
1.4 - Acknowledgements [Seite 10]
1.5 - List of abbreviations [Seite 11]
1.6 - 1 Anaesthetic assessment and preparation for surgery [Seite 13]
1.6.1 - The preoperative assessment clinic [Seite 14]
1.6.1.1 - Stage 1 [Seite 14]
1.6.1.2 - Stage 2 [Seite 14]
1.6.1.3 - Stage 3 [Seite 14]
1.6.2 - The anaesthetic assessment [Seite 15]
1.6.2.1 - Present and past medical history [Seite 15]
1.6.2.1.1 - Cardiovascular system [Seite 15]
1.6.2.1.2 - Respiratory system [Seite 16]
1.6.2.2 - Assessment of exercise tolerance [Seite 16]
1.6.2.3 - Other important considerations [Seite 17]
1.6.2.4 - Previous anaesthetics and operations [Seite 17]
1.6.2.5 - Family history [Seite 17]
1.6.2.6 - Drug history and allergies [Seite 17]
1.6.2.7 - Social history [Seite 17]
1.6.2.8 - The examination [Seite 18]
1.6.2.9 - Cardiovascular system [Seite 18]
1.6.2.10 - Respiratory system [Seite 18]
1.6.2.11 - Nervous system [Seite 18]
1.6.2.12 - Musculoskeletal system [Seite 18]
1.6.2.13 - The airway [Seite 18]
1.6.3 - Investigations [Seite 20]
1.6.3.1 - Additional investigations [Seite 20]
1.6.3.1.1 - Cardiopulmonary exercise testing [Seite 20]
1.6.3.1.2 - Echocardiography [Seite 21]
1.6.3.1.3 - Medical referral [Seite 21]
1.6.3.1.3.1 - Cardiovascular disease [Seite 21]
1.6.3.1.3.2 - Respiratory disease [Seite 21]
1.6.3.1.3.3 - Endocrine disorders [Seite 22]
1.6.3.1.3.4 - Renal disease [Seite 22]
1.6.3.1.3.5 - Haematological disorders [Seite 22]
1.6.3.2 - The obese patient [Seite 22]
1.6.3.2.1 - Cardiovascular system [Seite 22]
1.6.3.2.2 - Respiratory system [Seite 22]
1.6.3.2.3 - Metabolic and gastrointestinal systems [Seite 23]
1.6.3.2.4 - Other issues [Seite 23]
1.6.4 - Risk associated with anaesthesia and surgery [Seite 23]
1.6.4.1 - Common (1 in 10 to 1 in 100) [Seite 23]
1.6.4.2 - Uncommon (1 in 1000) [Seite 23]
1.6.4.3 - Rare (<1 in 10000) [Seite 23]
1.6.4.4 - Risk indicators [Seite 24]
1.6.4.5 - Classification of operation [Seite 25]
1.6.4.6 - Prevention of venous thromboembolism [Seite 25]
1.6.5 - Obtaining informed consent [Seite 26]
1.6.5.1 - What is consent? [Seite 26]
1.6.5.2 - What do I have to tell the patient? [Seite 26]
1.6.5.3 - Who should get consent? [Seite 27]
1.6.5.4 - What constitutes evidence of consent? [Seite 28]
1.6.5.5 - What about an unconscious patient? [Seite 28]
1.6.6 - FURTHER USEFUL INFORMATION [Seite 28]
1.7 - 2 Anaesthetic equipment and monitoring [Seite 30]
1.7.1 - Airway equipment [Seite 30]
1.7.1.1 - Facemasks [Seite 30]
1.7.1.2 - Simple adjuncts [Seite 31]
1.7.1.2.1 - Oropharyngeal airway [Seite 31]
1.7.1.2.2 - Nasopharyngeal airway [Seite 31]
1.7.1.3 - Supraglottic devices [Seite 31]
1.7.1.3.1 - The laryngeal mask airway (LMA) [Seite 31]
1.7.1.3.2 - The intubating LMA (ILMA) [Seite 32]
1.7.1.4 - Tracheal tubes [Seite 32]
1.7.1.5 - Laryngoscopes [Seite 34]
1.7.1.5.1 - Direct [Seite 34]
1.7.1.5.2 - Indirect [Seite 34]
1.7.1.6 - Gum elastic bougie [Seite 36]
1.7.2 - The safe delivery of anaesthesia [Seite 36]
1.7.2.1 - The delivery of gases to the operating theatre [Seite 36]
1.7.2.1.1 - Oxygen [Seite 36]
1.7.2.1.2 - Nitrous oxide [Seite 36]
1.7.2.1.3 - Medical air [Seite 37]
1.7.2.1.4 - Vacuum [Seite 37]
1.7.2.2 - The anaesthetic machine [Seite 37]
1.7.2.2.1 - Reduction of pressure [Seite 37]
1.7.2.3 - Control of flow of gases [Seite 37]
1.7.2.4 - The addition of anaesthetic vapours [Seite 38]
1.7.2.5 - Anaesthetic breathing systems [Seite 38]
1.7.2.6 - Components of a breathing system [Seite 38]
1.7.2.7 - The circle system [Seite 39]
1.7.2.8 - Mechanical ventilation [Seite 40]
1.7.2.8.1 - Modes of ventilation [Seite 40]
1.7.2.8.2 - The modern anaesthetic machine [Seite 41]
1.7.2.8.3 - The modern anaesthetic machine [Seite 41]
1.7.2.9 - Minimizing theatre pollution [Seite 41]
1.7.2.9.1 - Scavenging systems [Seite 41]
1.7.2.10 - Intravascular cannulas [Seite 42]
1.7.2.11 - Giving sets and fluid warmers [Seite 42]
1.7.2.12 - Patient warming [Seite 42]
1.7.2.13 - Cell savers [Seite 43]
1.7.2.14 - Ultrasound [Seite 43]
1.7.2.15 - Syringe pumps [Seite 43]
1.7.3 - Measurement and monitoring [Seite 43]
1.7.3.1 - Monitoring the patient [Seite 43]
1.7.3.1.1 - The ECG [Seite 43]
1.7.3.1.2 - Non-invasive blood pressure [Seite 43]
1.7.3.1.3 - Pulse oximeter [Seite 44]
1.7.3.1.4 - Capnometry [Seite 45]
1.7.3.1.5 - Vapour concentration analysis [Seite 45]
1.7.3.1.6 - Peripheral nerve stimulator [Seite 45]
1.7.3.1.7 - Temperature [Seite 45]
1.7.3.1.8 - Invasive or direct blood pressure [Seite 46]
1.7.3.1.9 - Central venous pressure (CVP) [Seite 46]
1.7.3.1.10 - Oesophageal Doppler cardiac output monitoring [Seite 46]
1.7.3.1.11 - Pulse analysis cardiac output monitoring [Seite 47]
1.7.3.1.12 - Bispectral index (BIS) [Seite 48]
1.7.3.1.13 - Blood loss [Seite 48]
1.7.3.2 - Monitoring the equipment [Seite 48]
1.7.3.2.1 - Oxygen supply [Seite 48]
1.7.3.2.2 - Breathing systems [Seite 48]
1.7.4 - FURTHER USEFUL INFORMATION [Seite 49]
1.8 - 3 Drugs and fluids used during anaesthesia [Seite 51]
1.8.1 - Premedication [Seite 51]
1.8.1.1 - Modification of pH and volume of gastric contents [Seite 51]
1.8.1.2 - Analgesia [Seite 52]
1.8.1.3 - Anti-emetics [Seite 52]
1.8.1.4 - Miscellaneous [Seite 52]
1.8.2 - Intravenous anaesthetic drugs [Seite 52]
1.8.3 - Inhaled anaesthetic drugs [Seite 54]
1.8.3.1 - Solubility [Seite 54]
1.8.3.2 - Minimum alveolar concentration [Seite 55]
1.8.3.3 - Nitrous oxide [Seite 55]
1.8.3.3.1 - Systemic effects [Seite 55]
1.8.4 - Total intravenous anaesthesia [Seite 56]
1.8.5 - Neuromuscular blocking drugs [Seite 56]
1.8.5.1 - Depolarizing neuromuscular blocking drugs [Seite 56]
1.8.5.1.1 - Suxamethonium [Seite 56]
1.8.5.1.2 - Pseudocholinesterase deficiency [Seite 56]
1.8.5.2 - Non-depolarizing neuromuscular blocking drugs [Seite 57]
1.8.5.3 - Anticholinesterases [Seite 57]
1.8.5.3.1 - Sugammadex [Seite 58]
1.8.6 - Analgesic drugs [Seite 58]
1.8.6.1 - Opioid analgesics [Seite 58]
1.8.6.2 - Pure agonists [Seite 58]
1.8.6.2.1 - Tramadol [Seite 59]
1.8.6.2.2 - Buprenorphine [Seite 60]
1.8.6.3 - The pure antagonist [Seite 60]
1.8.7 - The regulation of opioid drugs [Seite 60]
1.8.7.1 - Supply and custody of schedule 2 drugs [Seite 60]
1.8.8 - Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) [Seite 61]
1.8.8.1 - Paracetamol [Seite 61]
1.8.9 - Anti-emetics [Seite 62]
1.8.10 - Local anaesthetic drugs [Seite 62]
1.8.10.1 - Mechanism of action [Seite 62]
1.8.10.2 - Individual drugs [Seite 63]
1.8.10.2.1 - Amethocaine [Seite 63]
1.8.10.2.2 - Cocaine [Seite 63]
1.8.10.2.3 - Lidocaine [Seite 64]
1.8.10.2.4 - Bupivacaine [Seite 64]
1.8.10.2.5 - Ropivacaine [Seite 64]
1.8.10.2.6 - Prilocaine [Seite 64]
1.8.10.3 - Adrenaline (epinephrine) [Seite 64]
1.8.11 - Calculation of doses [Seite 65]
1.8.12 - Intravenous fluids [Seite 65]
1.8.12.1 - Crystalloids [Seite 65]
1.8.12.2 - Colloids [Seite 66]
1.8.12.3 - Blood and blood components [Seite 67]
1.8.13 - Risks of blood and blood-product transfusions [Seite 67]
1.8.14 - FURTHER USEFUL INFORMATION [Seite 68]
1.9 - 4 The practice of general anaesthesia [Seite 70]
1.9.1 - Preoperative checks [Seite 70]
1.9.1.1 - Checking the anaesthetic machine [Seite 70]
1.9.1.2 - Checking the patient [Seite 70]
1.9.1.3 - Sign in [Seite 71]
1.9.2 - Preparation for anaesthesia [Seite 71]
1.9.2.1 - Monitoring the patient [Seite 71]
1.9.2.2 - Intravenous access [Seite 72]
1.9.2.2.1 - Central venous cannulation [Seite 72]
1.9.2.2.2 - The internal jugular vein [Seite 72]
1.9.2.2.3 - Subclavian vein [Seite 73]
1.9.2.3 - Equipment for central venous catheterization [Seite 73]
1.9.2.4 - Arterial cannulation [Seite 74]
1.9.2.5 - Technique of cannulation [Seite 74]
1.9.2.6 - Preoxygenation [Seite 74]
1.9.3 - Induction of anaesthesia [Seite 74]
1.9.4 - Maintaining the airway [Seite 75]
1.9.4.1 - Oropharyngeal airway [Seite 75]
1.9.4.2 - Nasopharyngeal airway [Seite 76]
1.9.4.3 - Problems with airways [Seite 77]
1.9.4.4 - Facemasks [Seite 77]
1.9.4.5 - Supraglottic airway devices [Seite 78]
1.9.4.5.1 - Insertion of a supraglottic airway [Seite 78]
1.9.4.6 - Tracheal intubation [Seite 79]
1.9.4.6.1 - Equipment for tracheal intubation [Seite 79]
1.9.4.6.2 - The technique of oral intubation [Seite 79]
1.9.4.6.3 - Confirming the position of the tracheal tube [Seite 80]
1.9.4.6.4 - Complications of tracheal intubation [Seite 81]
1.9.4.6.4.1 - Hypoxia, due to [Seite 81]
1.9.4.6.4.2 - Trauma [Seite 81]
1.9.4.6.4.3 - Reflex activity [Seite 81]
1.9.4.7 - Keeping patients warm [Seite 82]
1.9.5 - Maintenance of anaesthesia [Seite 82]
1.9.5.1 - Inhalational anaesthesia [Seite 82]
1.9.5.2 - TIVA using propofol [Seite 82]
1.9.5.2.1 - Advantages of total intravenous anaesthesia [Seite 83]
1.9.5.2.2 - Disadvantages of total intravenous anaesthesia [Seite 83]
1.9.5.3 - Spontaneous ventilation [Seite 83]
1.9.5.4 - Mechanical ventilation [Seite 83]
1.9.5.4.1 - The effects of positive pressure ventilation [Seite 83]
1.9.6 - Transfer into the operating theatre [Seite 84]
1.9.6.1 - Positioning the patient [Seite 84]
1.9.6.1.1 - The supine position [Seite 84]
1.9.6.1.2 - The lateral position [Seite 85]
1.9.6.1.3 - The prone position [Seite 85]
1.9.6.2 - Time out [Seite 86]
1.9.6.3 - Assessment of neuromuscular blockade [Seite 86]
1.9.6.4 - Intraoperative fluids [Seite 87]
1.9.6.4.1 - The accrued deficit [Seite 87]
1.9.6.4.2 - Intraoperative requirements [Seite 87]
1.9.6.5 - The anaesthetic record [Seite 88]
1.9.7 - Emergence from anaesthesia [Seite 88]
1.9.7.1 - Sign out [Seite 88]
1.9.7.1.1 - 1. Spontaneous ventilation, inhalational drug for maintenance, supraglottic airway [Seite 88]
1.9.7.1.2 - 2. Mechanical ventilation, inhalational drug for maintenance, tracheal tube [Seite 89]
1.9.8 - FURTHER USEFUL INFORMATION [Seite 89]
1.10 - 5 Local and regional anaesthesia [Seite 91]
1.10.1 - The role of local and regional anaesthesia [Seite 91]
1.10.2 - Local and regional anaesthetic techniques [Seite 92]
1.10.2.1 - Infiltration analgesia [Seite 92]
1.10.2.2 - Brachial plexus block [Seite 93]
1.10.2.3 - Transversus abdominis plane (TAP) block [Seite 93]
1.10.2.4 - Epidural anaesthesia [Seite 93]
1.10.2.5 - Spinal anaesthesia [Seite 95]
1.10.2.5.1 - Contraindications to epidural and spinal anaesthesia [Seite 96]
1.10.3 - Monitoring during local and regional anaesthesia [Seite 96]
1.10.4 - Complications of central neural blockade [Seite 96]
1.10.4.1 - Hypotension and bradycardia [Seite 96]
1.10.4.2 - Nausea and vomiting [Seite 96]
1.10.4.3 - Post dural puncture headache [Seite 97]
1.10.5 - Local anaesthetic toxicity [Seite 97]
1.10.5.1 - Management of toxicity [Seite 97]
1.10.5.1.1 - Circulatory collapse [Seite 97]
1.10.6 - Regional anaesthesia: in awake or anaesthetised patients? [Seite 98]
1.10.7 - FURTHER USEFUL INFORMATION [Seite 98]
1.11 - 6 Special circumstances [Seite 100]
1.11.1 - Anaesthesia for emergency surgery [Seite 100]
1.11.2 - Reducing the risks of aspiration [Seite 100]
1.11.2.1 - Cricoid pressure (Sellick's manoeuvre) [Seite 101]
1.11.2.2 - Rapid sequence induction of anaesthesia [Seite 101]
1.11.3 - Anaesthesia for obstetric patients [Seite 101]
1.11.3.1 - Aortocaval compression [Seite 102]
1.11.4 - Anaesthesia for thoracotomy [Seite 103]
1.11.5 - Aspiration of gastric contents [Seite 104]
1.11.5.1 - Management [Seite 104]
1.11.5.1.1 - Aspiration at induction [Seite 104]
1.11.5.2 - Aspiration intraoperatively with supra-glottic airway [Seite 105]
1.11.6 - Anaphylaxis [Seite 105]
1.11.6.1 - Causes of allergic reactions [Seite 106]
1.11.6.2 - Immediate management [Seite 106]
1.11.6.3 - Subsequent management [Seite 106]
1.11.6.4 - Investigations [Seite 106]
1.11.7 - Malignant hyperpyrexia (hyperthermia) (MH) [Seite 107]
1.11.7.1 - Presentation [Seite 107]
1.11.7.2 - Immediate management [Seite 107]
1.11.7.2.1 - Dantrolene [Seite 107]
1.11.7.3 - Investigation of the family [Seite 107]
1.11.7.4 - Anaesthesia for malignant hyperpyrexia-susceptible patients [Seite 107]
1.11.8 - Difficult intubation [Seite 107]
1.11.9 - Failed intubation [Seite 108]
1.11.10 - Needle cricothyroidotomy [Seite 110]
1.11.11 - FURTHER USEFUL INFORMATION [Seite 110]
1.12 - 7 Post-anaesthesia care [Seite 112]
1.12.1 - The post-anaesthesia care unit [Seite 112]
1.12.1.1 - Discharge of the patient [Seite 113]
1.12.2 - Postoperative complications and their management [Seite 113]
1.12.2.1 - Hypoxaemia [Seite 113]
1.12.2.1.1 - Alveolar hypoventilation [Seite 113]
1.12.2.1.2 - Ventilation and perfusion mismatch within the lungs [Seite 115]
1.12.2.1.3 - Diffusion hypoxia [Seite 116]
1.12.2.1.4 - Pulmonary diffusion defects [Seite 116]
1.12.2.1.5 - A reduced inspired oxygen concentration [Seite 116]
1.12.2.2 - Management of hypoxaemia [Seite 116]
1.12.2.3 - Devices used for delivery of oxygen [Seite 116]
1.12.2.3.1 - Variable-performance devices: masks or nasal cannulae [Seite 116]
1.12.2.3.2 - Fixed-performance devices [Seite 117]
1.12.2.4 - Hypotension [Seite 118]
1.12.2.5 - Step 1: Assess the circulating volume (preload) [Seite 118]
1.12.2.6 - Treatment [Seite 118]
1.12.2.7 - Step 2: Assess cardiac output [Seite 118]
1.12.2.8 - Treatment [Seite 118]
1.12.2.9 - Step 3: Assess for vasodilatation [Seite 119]
1.12.2.10 - Hypertension [Seite 120]
1.12.2.11 - Postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) [Seite 120]
1.12.3 - Postoperative intravenous fluid therapy [Seite 120]
1.12.3.1 - Minor surgery [Seite 120]
1.12.4 - Major surgery [Seite 122]
1.12.4.1 - Third space losses [Seite 122]
1.12.4.2 - Clinical assessment [Seite 123]
1.12.4.2.1 - Biochemistry [Seite 123]
1.12.4.2.2 - Monitoring [Seite 123]
1.12.4.2.3 - The stress response [Seite 123]
1.12.5 - Postoperative analgesia [Seite 124]
1.12.5.1 - Factors affecting the experience of pain [Seite 124]
1.12.5.2 - Management of postoperative pain [Seite 124]
1.12.5.2.1 - Assessment of acute pain [Seite 124]
1.12.5.2.2 - Analgesic drugs used postoperatively [Seite 125]
1.12.5.2.3 - Analgesic techniques used postoperatively [Seite 126]
1.12.5.2.4 - Regional analgesic techniques [Seite 127]
1.12.5.2.5 - Management of complications during postoperative epidural analgesia [Seite 129]
1.12.5.2.6 - Intrathecal (spinal) analgesia [Seite 131]
1.12.5.2.7 - Other techniques [Seite 131]
1.12.5.2.8 - Combining analgesic techniques [Seite 131]
1.12.5.3 - Difficult pain problems [Seite 131]
1.12.6 - FURTHER USEFUL INFORMATION [Seite 131]
1.13 - 8 The acutely ill adult patient on the ward [Seite 133]
1.13.1 - Section 1: Recognition and assessment [Seite 133]
1.13.1.1 - Clinical scoring systems (track and trigger systems) [Seite 134]
1.13.1.2 - Critical care outreach teams [Seite 135]
1.13.1.3 - Receiving a call [Seite 135]
1.13.1.4 - The principles of assessment [Seite 136]
1.13.1.5 - Initial approach to the patient [Seite 137]
1.13.1.6 - Primary assessment and resuscitation [Seite 137]
1.13.1.6.1 - Airway assessment (A) [Seite 137]
1.13.1.6.1.1 - Look for chest movement [Seite 137]
1.13.1.6.1.2 - Listen for sounds of air movement and any associated abnormal noises [Seite 138]
1.13.1.6.1.3 - Feel for expired air [Seite 138]
1.13.1.6.2 - Assess breathing (B) [Seite 138]
1.13.1.6.2.1 - Look for the signs of abnormal breathing [Seite 138]
1.13.1.6.2.2 - Also look for [Seite 139]
1.13.1.6.2.3 - Listen for signs of respiratory disease [Seite 139]
1.13.1.6.2.4 - Feel the chest for [Seite 139]
1.13.1.6.3 - Assess the circulation (C) [Seite 140]
1.13.1.6.3.1 - Look for [Seite 140]
1.13.1.6.3.2 - Listen for [Seite 140]
1.13.1.6.3.3 - Feel for [Seite 141]
1.13.1.6.4 - Assessing neurological state - disability (D) [Seite 141]
1.13.1.6.4.1 - Examine the pupils for size and reactivity to light [Seite 141]
1.13.1.6.4.2 - Other important checks [Seite 142]
1.13.1.6.5 - Exposure/examination (E) [Seite 142]
1.13.1.7 - What to do next? [Seite 142]
1.13.1.7.1 - Communicating information about patient deterioration [Seite 143]
1.13.2 - Section 2: Management of common emergencies [Seite 143]
1.13.2.1 - Acute shortness of breath [Seite 144]
1.13.2.1.1 - Acute lower airway problems [Seite 146]
1.13.2.1.1.1 - Look for [Seite 146]
1.13.2.1.1.2 - Listen for [Seite 146]
1.13.2.1.1.3 - Feel for [Seite 146]
1.13.2.1.2 - Acute upper airway obstruction [Seite 144]
1.13.2.1.2.1 - Look for [Seite 144]
1.13.2.1.2.2 - Listen for [Seite 144]
1.13.2.1.2.3 - Feel for [Seite 144]
1.13.2.1.3 - Reduced conscious level (reduced GCS) [Seite 144]
1.13.2.1.4 - Upper airway swelling/tumour [Seite 144]
1.13.2.1.4.1 - Start treatment [Seite 145]
1.13.2.1.5 - External compression after surgery [Seite 145]
1.13.2.1.5.1 - Start treatment [Seite 145]
1.13.2.1.6 - Blocked tracheostomy [Seite 145]
1.13.2.1.7 - Acute severe asthma [Seite 146]
1.13.2.1.7.1 - Start treatment with [Seite 146]
1.13.2.1.7.2 - Establish basic monitoring [Seite 146]
1.13.2.1.7.3 - Gain IV access [Seite 146]
1.13.2.1.7.4 - Refer to ITU if [Seite 149]
1.13.2.1.8 - Pneumonia [Seite 149]
1.13.2.1.8.1 - 1. History [Seite 149]
1.13.2.1.8.2 - 2. Examination [Seite 149]
1.13.2.1.8.3 - Start treatment [Seite 149]
1.13.2.1.8.4 - Obtain IV access [Seite 149]
1.13.2.1.8.5 - Establish basic monitoring and record vital signs [Seite 149]
1.13.2.1.8.6 - 3. Investigations [Seite 149]
1.13.2.1.9 - Pneumothorax [Seite 150]
1.13.2.1.9.1 - Look for [Seite 150]
1.13.2.1.9.2 - Listen for [Seite 150]
1.13.2.1.9.3 - Feel for [Seite 150]
1.13.2.1.9.4 - Start treatment with [Seite 150]
1.13.2.1.9.5 - Establish basic monitoring [Seite 150]
1.13.2.1.9.6 - Gain IV access [Seite 150]
1.13.2.1.9.7 - Investigations [Seite 150]
1.13.2.1.10 - Tension pneumothorax [Seite 150]
1.13.2.1.10.1 - Start treatment [Seite 150]
1.13.2.1.11 - Pulmonary oedema [Seite 151]
1.13.2.1.11.1 - Look for [Seite 151]
1.13.2.1.11.2 - Listen for [Seite 151]
1.13.2.1.11.3 - Feel for [Seite 151]
1.13.2.1.11.4 - Start treatment [Seite 151]
1.13.2.1.11.5 - Establish basic monitoring [Seite 151]
1.13.2.1.11.6 - Gain IV access [Seite 151]
1.13.2.1.11.7 - Investigations [Seite 151]
1.13.2.1.11.8 - Further measures [Seite 152]
1.13.2.1.12 - Pulmonary embolism [Seite 152]
1.13.2.1.12.1 - Look for [Seite 152]
1.13.2.1.12.2 - Listen for [Seite 152]
1.13.2.1.12.3 - Feel for [Seite 152]
1.13.2.1.12.4 - Other findings include [Seite 152]
1.13.2.1.12.5 - Start treatment [Seite 153]
1.13.2.1.12.6 - In severe cases [Seite 153]
1.13.2.1.12.7 - Investigations [Seite 153]
1.13.2.2 - Hypotension [Seite 153]
1.13.2.2.1 - Look for [Seite 153]
1.13.2.2.2 - Listen for [Seite 153]
1.13.2.2.3 - Feel for [Seite 154]
1.13.2.2.4 - Hypovolaemic shock [Seite 154]
1.13.2.2.4.1 - Start treatment [Seite 154]
1.13.2.2.4.2 - Investigations [Seite 155]
1.13.2.2.5 - Sepsis and septic shock [Seite 155]
1.13.2.2.5.1 - Start treatment [Seite 156]
1.13.2.2.6 - Cardiogenic shock [Seite 156]
1.13.2.2.6.1 - Start treatment [Seite 156]
1.13.2.2.6.2 - Investigations [Seite 157]
1.13.2.3 - Low urine output [Seite 157]
1.13.2.3.1 - Start treatment [Seite 158]
1.13.2.3.2 - Investigations [Seite 158]
1.13.2.4 - Chest pain [Seite 159]
1.13.2.4.1 - Unstable angina [Seite 159]
1.13.2.4.2 - Non-ST-segment-elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI) [Seite 160]
1.13.2.4.3 - ST-segment-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) [Seite 160]
1.13.2.4.3.1 - Start treatment [Seite 160]
1.13.2.5 - Cardiac arrhythmias [Seite 161]
1.13.2.5.1 - Tachycardias [Seite 161]
1.13.2.5.2 - Bradycardia [Seite 162]
1.13.2.6 - Cardiac arrest [Seite 162]
1.13.2.6.1 - Actions on attending a cardiac arrest [Seite 162]
1.13.2.7 - Reduced conscious level [Seite 166]
1.13.2.7.1 - Hypoglycaemia [Seite 166]
1.13.2.7.1.1 - Start treatment [Seite 166]
1.13.2.7.1.2 - If the patient is unconscious [Seite 166]
1.13.2.7.1.3 - Investigations [Seite 166]
1.13.2.7.2 - Opioid narcosis [Seite 167]
1.13.2.7.2.1 - Start treatment [Seite 167]
1.13.2.7.3 - Stroke/intracranial haemorrhage [Seite 167]
1.13.2.7.3.1 - Start treatment [Seite 167]
1.13.2.7.3.2 - Following the initial assessment and stabilization the priorities are [Seite 168]
1.13.2.7.4 - Status epilepticus [Seite 168]
1.13.2.7.4.1 - Start treatment [Seite 168]
1.13.2.7.4.2 - If seizures continue [Seite 168]
1.13.2.7.4.3 - Refractory status epilepticus [Seite 168]
1.13.2.7.4.4 - Investigations [Seite 168]
1.13.2.7.5 - Reduced level of consciousness secondary to hypoxaemia or hypovolaemia [Seite 169]
1.13.3 - FURTHER USEFUL INFORMATION [Seite 169]
1.14 - Answers to short-answer questions [Seite 171]
1.15 - Answers to true/false questions [Seite 183]
1.16 - Index [Seite 189]
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