
Advanced Semiconducting Materials and Devices
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Content
- Intro
- Preface
- Acknowledgements
- Contents
- Abbreviations
- Symbols with Units
- About the Authors
- Part I Review of Fundamentalsof Semiconductors
- 1 Semiconductor Materials: Their Properties, Applications, and Recent Advances
- Abstract
- 1.1 Importance of Electronic and Semiconducting Materials
- 1.2 Classification of Electrical and Electronic Materials, and Status of Semiconducting Materials
- 1.2.1 Conductors
- 1.2.2 Semiconductors
- 1.2.3 Dielectrics
- 1.2.4 Superconductors
- 1.3 Scope of Application of Semiconducting Materials
- 1.4 Electrons and Their Role in Semiconductivity
- 1.4.1 Valence Electrons
- 1.5 Classification of Materials on the Basis of Energy Gap (or Band)
- 1.5.1 Valence and Conduction Band, and Energy Gap
- 1.5.2 Comparison among Conductors, Semiconductors and Insulators
- 1.6 Introduction to Semiconducting Materials [1]
- 1.6.1 Different Types of Semiconducting Materials
- 1.6.2 Merits of Semiconducting Materials
- 1.6.3 Characteristics of Semiconducting Materials
- 1.6.4 Semiconducting Devices and Their Working Principles
- 1.7 Element Form Semiconducting Materials
- 1.7.1 Silicon (Si)
- 1.7.2 Germanium (Ge)
- 1.7.3 Selenium (Se)
- 1.7.4 Antimony (Sb)
- 1.7.5 Other Elements
- 1.7.6 Comparison Between Silicon and Germanium
- 1.8 Formulated (Compound and Alloyed) Semiconductor Materials
- 1.8.1 Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
- 1.8.2 Indium Antimonite (InSb)
- 1.8.3 Oxides, Sulphides, Hallides, Tellurides and Sellurides
- 1.8.4 Cadmium Sulphide (CdS)
- 1.8.5 Silicon Carbide (SiC)
- 1.8.6 Lead Sulphide (PbS)
- 1.8.7 Indium Arsenide (InAs)
- 1.9 Choicest Materials for Different Semiconductor Devices
- 1.10 Spintronics and Spintronic Materials [1]
- 1.10.1 Major Fields of Spintronic Research
- 1.10.2 Operational Mechanisms of Spintronic Devices
- 1.10.3 Working Principle of Spintronic Devices
- 1.10.4 Emerging and Futuristic Spintronic Materials
- 1.11 Ferromagnetic Semiconductor
- 1.12 Emerging Wide Bandgap Semiconductors
- 1.13 Left Handed (LH) Materials [1]
- 1.13.1 Single Negative Left-Handed Materials
- 1.13.2 Double Negative Left-Handed Materials
- 1.13.3 Negative Index Metamaterials
- 1.13.4 Double Positive Medium
- 1.14 Manganese Semiconductor
- 1.15 Diluted Magnetic Semiconductor
- 1.16 Silicon: The Semiconductor Used as Raw Material in Making ICs
- 1.16.1 Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) for Making Integrated Circuit
- 1.17 Semiconducting Photocatalytic Materials in the Services of Pollution Free Environment
- 1.18 LED Stumps: The Advent of Semiconductors in Cricket
- 1.19 Glimpse of Some Salient Semiconductors
- 1.20 Solved Examples
- Review Questions
- Objective Questions
- Answers
- References
- 2 Overview of Crystals, Bonding, Imperfections, Atomic Models, Narrow and Wide Bandgap Semiconductors and, Semiconductor Devices
- Abstract
- 2.1 Crystal Structure
- 2.2 Bravais Crystal System
- 2.3 Miller Indices: The Crystallographic Notation of Atomic Planes
- 2.3.1 Determining the Miller Indices of a Given Plane [1]
- 2.3.2 Family of Planes
- 2.3.3 Miller Indices: Crystallographic Notation of Atomic Crystal Directions
- 2.3.4 Family of Directions
- 2.4 Chemical (or Atomic) Bonding
- 2.4.1 Type of Bond in Semiconductors
- 2.4.2 Nature of Bond in Semiconductors
- 2.5 Bonding Forces
- 2.5.1 Bonding Length and Bond Forces
- 2.6 Covalent Bond and Semiconductors
- 2.6.1 Type of Covalent Bond in Semiconductors
- 2.6.2 Bond Angle in Semiconductors
- 2.6.3 Mixed Bond in Compound Semiconductors
- 2.7 Diamond Cubic (DC) Structure of Silicon and Germanium
- 2.8 Lattice Structures of Some Compound Semiconductors
- 2.9 Lattice Structure of Zinc Sulphide
- 2.10 Crystal Imperfections
- 2.10.1 Types of Imperfections
- 2.10.2 Point Imperfections
- 2.11 Bohr's Quantum Atomic Model
- 2.11.1 Radii of Orbits, Velocity and Frequency of Electrons
- 2.11.2 Normal, Excited and Ionized Atoms
- 2.11.3 Electron Energy
- 2.11.4 Frequency of Radiation and Spectral Series of Hydrogen
- 2.12 Sommerfeld's Relativistic Atomic Model
- 2.13 Modern Concept of Atomic Model
- 2.14 Quantum States
- 2.14.1 Pauli's Exclusion Principle
- 2.15 Important Applications of Semiconductor Devices
- 2.15.1 Brief Description of Some Semiconductor Devices
- 2.16 Narrow Bandgap Semiconductor Materials
- 2.16.1 HgCdTe as Narrow Bandgap Semiconductor [2]
- 2.16.2 Applications as Infrared Detectors
- 2.16.3 Ternary Stannide Phase Narrow Bandgap Semiconductors: Na2MgSn [3]
- 2.17 Wide Bandgap Semiconductor [4]
- 2.17.1 Advances in Wide Bandgap Materials for Semiconductor Spintronics [5]
- 2.17.2 Future Aspect of Wide Bandgap Materials Power Generating Window [6]
- 2.17.3 Recent Advances in Wide Bandgap Materials
- 2.18 Rectifiers
- 2.18.1 Selenium Rectifier
- 2.19 Solved Examples
- Review Questions
- Numerical Problems
- Objective Questions
- Answers
- References
- 3 Carrier Transport in Semiconductors
- Abstract
- 3.1 Electrons and Their Role in Conductivity
- 3.1.1 Valence Electrons
- 3.1.2 Free Electrons
- 3.2 Electron Theories of Solids
- 3.2.1 Free Electron Theory
- 3.2.2 Mechanism of Conduction by Free Electrons
- 3.3 Energy Band Theory
- 3.4 Brillouin Zone Theory
- 3.4.1 Meaning of Brillouin Zones
- 3.4.2 First and Second Brillouin Zones
- 3.4.3 Brillouin Zones for Simple Cubic Lattice
- 3.4.4 Brillouin Zones for BCC, FCC and HCP Lattices
- 3.5 Direct and Indirect Energy Band Semiconductors
- 3.5.1 Differences Between Direct and Indirect Semiconductors
- 3.5.2 Variation of Eg with Alloy Composition
- 3.5.3 Effect of Alloying on GaAs1--xPx
- 3.5.4 Charge Carriers in Semiconductors
- 3.5.5 Fermi Energy Level
- 3.5.6 Fermi-Dirac Probability Distribution
- 3.6 Intrinsic Semiconductors
- 3.6.1 Energy Diagram
- 3.6.2 Holes, Mobility and Conductivity
- 3.7 Extrinsic Semiconductors
- 3.7.1 n-Type Semiconductors and Their Energy Diagram
- 3.7.2 p-Type Semiconductors and Their Energy Diagram
- 3.8 Effective Mass
- 3.9 Carrier Concentrations
- 3.9.1 Density of State, and Electron and Hole Concentration at Equilibrium
- 3.10 Temperature Dependency of Carrier Concentrations
- 3.10.1 Temperature Dependency of ni
- 3.11 Drift of Carriers in Electric and Magnetic Fields
- 3.11.1 Drift Velocity and Collision Time
- 3.11.2 Mean Free Path (or Mean Free Length) and Conductivity
- 3.12 Effects of Temperature on Mobility of Carriers
- 3.12.1 Effects of Doping on Mobility
- 3.13 Degenerate Semiconductors
- 3.13.1 Effect of Heavy Doping
- 3.13.2 Degenerate Types
- 3.13.3 Filled and Empty Energy States in Conventional and Degenerate Semiconductors
- 3.14 High-Field Effects
- 3.15 The Hall Effect
- 3.15.1 Significance of Hall Effect
- 3.16 Relation Between Density of States and Fermi Energy
- 3.16.1 Quantization of Energy i.e. 3-dimensionalization
- 3.16.2 Momentum Space
- 3.16.3 Fermi Sphere
- 3.16.4 Derivation of Different Fermi Parameters
- 3.16.5 Relation Among Density of Fermi States (EF), EF and N
- 3.17 Solved Examples
- Review Questions
- Numerical Problems
- Objective Type Questions
- Answers
- Reference
- 4 Excess Carriers in Semiconductors
- Abstract
- 4.1 Introduction
- 4.2 Optical Absorption
- 4.2.1 Mechanism
- 4.2.2 Absorption Coefficient
- 4.2.3 Factors Affecting the Absorption Coefficient
- 4.2.4 Capability of a Material to Absorb Light
- 4.3 Luminescence
- 4.3.1 Photo-Luminescence
- 4.4 Phosphorescence
- 4.4.1 Phosphorescence Materials
- 4.4.2 Mechanism of Excitation and Recombination in Photo-Luminescence
- 4.5 Electro-Luminescence
- 4.5.1 Examples of Electroluminescent Materials
- 4.5.2 Practical Implementations
- 4.5.3 Advantageous Features
- 4.6 Carrier Lifetime
- 4.7 Derivation of Carrier Lifetime in Direct Recombination Mechanism
- 4.7.1 Assumptions and Simplifications
- 4.7.2 Solution of Equation to Determine Lifetime
- 4.7.3 Generalization of Expression
- 4.8 Indirect Recombination (i.e. Capture or Trapping Process)
- 4.9 Steady State Carrier Generation
- 4.9.1 Quasi-Fermi Levels
- 4.10 Photoconductivity
- 4.10.1 Applications of Photoconductive Devices
- 4.10.2 Photoconductive Materials and Factors Affecting Their Selection
- 4.10.3 Factors Affecting the Selection of Semiconductor
- 4.11 Photoconductive Cell [1]
- 4.11.1 Photo-Multiplier Tube
- 4.12 Diffusion of Carriers
- 4.12.1 Determining the Rate of Electron and Hole Diffusion
- 4.12.2 Analysis of Drift and Diffusion Carriers
- 4.13 Einstein Relation
- 4.14 Continuity Equation (i.e. Diffusion and Recombination)
- 4.14.1 Diffusion Equation and Diffusion Length
- 4.15 Transport of Charges and Impurity Distribution Profile During Diffusion
- 4.15.1 Solution by Error Function Method
- 4.15.2 Complementary Error Function and Gaussian Distribution
- 4.16 Long Diode and Short Diode
- 4.16.1 Voltage-Variable Capacitance
- 4.16.2 Effect of Dielectric Constant on Width of the Transition Region and Voltage Capacitance
- 4.17 Solved Examples
- Review Questions
- Numerical Problems
- Objective Questions
- Answers
- References
- Part II Junction and Interfaces
- 5 P-N Junctions and Their Breakdown Mechanisms
- Abstract
- 5.1 Junction Diode
- 5.1.1 P-N Diode (or P-N Junction Diode)
- 5.1.2 Applications of P-N Diode
- 5.2 Equilibrium Conditions
- 5.2.1 Electrostatic (or Contact) Potential
- 5.2.2 Establishing the Relation Between Contact Potential and Doping Concentrations
- 5.3 Fermi Level at Equilibrium
- 5.3.1 Space Charge at Junction
- 5.3.2 Determining the Maximum Value of Electric Field
- 5.4 Determining the Width of Depletion Region and Penetration Depth
- 5.4.1 Determining the Penetration Depth in Depletion Region
- 5.5 Biased Junctions
- 5.6 Working of p-n Diode When not Connected to a Battery
- 5.6.1 Diffusion of Holes and Electrons
- 5.6.2 Set-Up of Barrier
- 5.6.3 Formation of Depletion (or Space Charge) Region
- 5.6.4 Flow of Drift and Diffusion Current
- 5.7 Forward Biased p-n Junction
- 5.7.1 Voltage-Current Characteristics
- 5.7.2 Voltage-Ampere Equation and Its Temperature Dependence
- 5.8 Reverse Biased P-N Junction
- 5.8.1 Reverse-Bias Characteristics of a p-n Diode
- 5.8.2 Reverse Saturation Current
- 5.8.2.1 Voltage-Current Characteristics
- 5.9 Comparison of the Effects of No-bias, Forward-Bias and Reverse-Bias at a P-N Junction
- 5.9.1 Diode Equation
- 5.9.2 Poisson's Equation
- 5.10 Volt-Ampere Characteristics
- 5.10.1 In Forward Biasing
- 5.10.2 In Reverse Biasing
- 5.11 Junction Breakdown Mechanisms
- 5.11.1 Zener Breakdown
- 5.11.2 Avalanche Breakdown
- 5.12 Junction Capacitance
- 5.13 Rectifying Diodes
- 5.13.1 Half-Wave Rectifier
- 5.13.2 Full-Wave Rectifier
- 5.14 Zener Diode
- 5.14.1 Zener Diode for Meter Protection
- 5.14.2 Zener Diode as Peak Clipper
- 5.15 The Breakdown Diode
- 5.15.1 Use of Diodes in DC Power Supplies
- 5.16 Solved Examples
- Review Questions
- Numerical Problems
- Objective Questions
- Answers
- Reference
- 6 Different Types of Diodes, Ideal and Real Diodes, Switching Diodes, Abrupt and Graded Junctions
- Abstract
- 6.1 Examples of Diodes
- 6.1.1 Zener Diodes
- 6.1.2 Avalanche Diodes
- 6.1.3 Cat's Whisker (or Crystal) Diodes
- 6.1.4 Thermal Diodes
- 6.1.5 Constant Current Diodes
- 6.1.6 Photodiodes
- 6.1.7 PIN Diodes
- 6.1.8 Schottky Diodes
- 6.1.9 Gold-Doped Diodes
- 6.1.10 Super Barrier Diodes
- 6.1.11 Varicap (or Varactor) Diodes
- 6.1.12 Gunn Diodes
- 6.1.13 Esaki (or Tunnel) Diodes
- 6.1.14 Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
- 6.1.15 Laser Diodes
- 6.1.16 Transient Voltage Suppression (TVS) Diode
- 6.1.17 Snap-Off (or Step Recovery) Diodes (SRD)
- 6.2 Symbolic Representation of Different Diodes
- 6.3 The Diode Model
- 6.4 Real Diodes
- 6.4.1 Ideal Diode Versus Real Diode
- 6.5 Different Conditions of the Working of P-N Junctions
- 6.6 Transient Conditions
- 6.7 Time Dependent Variation in Space Charge
- 6.7.1 Determining the Solution for Stored Charge
- 6.8 Reverse Recovery Transient
- 6.9 Switching Diodes
- 6.9.1 Improving the Switching Speed
- 6.9.2 Narrow Base Diode
- 6.10 Capacitance of P-N Junctions
- 6.10.1 Derivation of the Expression for Junction Capacitance
- 6.11 Linearly Graded, Abrupt and Hyperabrupt Junctions
- 6.11.1 Doping Profile
- 6.12 Graded Junctions
- 6.13 Solved Examples
- Review Questions
- Objective Questions
- Answers
- Reference
- Part III Majority Carrier Diodes,Microwave Diodes, and OptoelectronicDevices
- 7 Majority Carrier Diodes (Tunnel Diode, Backward Diode, Schottky Barrier Diode, Ohmic Contacts, and Heterojunctions)
- Abstract
- 7.1 Introduction to Microwave Devices
- 7.2 Tunnel Diodes
- 7.3 Tunnel Diode Operation
- 7.3.1 Equilibrium or Zero-Bias Condition (Fig. 7.2a)
- 7.3.2 Small Reverse Bias Condition (Fig. 7.2b)
- 7.3.3 Small Forward Bias Condition (Fig. 7.3a)
- 7.3.4 Increased Forward Bias Condition (Fig. 7.3b)
- 7.4 Response of a Tunnel Diode Beyond the Negative Resistance Region
- 7.5 Total Tunnel Diode Characteristic
- 7.6 Transit Time Device
- 7.6.1 Transit Time Effects
- 7.6.2 Requirements of a Good Transit Time Device
- 7.7 The Backward Diode
- 7.7.1 I-V Characteristics of Backward Diode
- 7.7.2 Applications of Backward Diode
- 7.8 Metal-Semiconductor Junctions
- 7.9 Schottky Diodes
- 7.9.1 Case I: Mechanism of Schottky Diode When the Semiconductor Is of n-Type
- 7.9.2 Case II: Mechanism of Schottky Diode When the Semiconductor Is of p-Type
- 7.9.3 Limitations of Schottky Barrier Junctions
- 7.9.4 Characteristics of Schottky Diode
- 7.9.5 Applications
- 7.10 Ohmic Contacts
- 7.11 Heterojunctions
- 7.11.1 Unique Behaviour of Heterojunctions
- 7.11.2 Band Discontinuities and Band Bending
- 7.12 Potential Well in Heterojunction
- Review Questions
- 8 Microwave Diodes (Varactor Diode, p-i-n Diode, IMPATT Diode, TRAPATT Diode, BARITT Diode, etc.)
- Abstract
- 8.1 Varactor Diode
- 8.1.1 V--I Characteristics of Varactor Diode
- 8.1.2 Performance Characteristics of Varactor Diode
- 8.1.3 Applications of Varactor Diodes
- 8.2 Photodiodes
- 8.2.1 Basic Construction of a Photodiode
- 8.2.2 p-n Photodiode
- 8.2.3 p-i-n Photodiode
- 8.2.4 Avalanche Photodiode
- 8.2.5 Mid-Infrared Photodiodes
- 8.3 The Impatt Diode
- 8.3.1 Operational Mechanism
- 8.4 Trapatt Diode
- 8.4.1 Plasma Formation in TRAPATT Diode
- 8.4.2 Operation
- 8.4.3 Advantages
- 8.4.4 Applications of TRAPATT Devices
- 8.5 BARITT Diode
- 8.5.1 Structure of BARITT Diode
- 8.5.2 Performance of BARITT Diode
- 8.6 Transferred Electron Mechanism
- 8.6.1 Valleys in Conduction Band
- 8.6.2 Negative Differential Conductivity
- 8.6.3 Dependence of Electron Velocity on Electric Field
- 8.7 The Gunn Diode
- 8.7.1 Materials and Fabrication
- 8.7.2 Dielectric Relaxation Time in Respect of the Gunn Diode
- 8.7.3 Dependence of Electron Drift Velocity on Electric Field for a Gunn Diode
- 8.8 Dovett Diode
- 8.9 Solved Examples
- Review Questions
- Objective Questions
- Answers
- 9 Optoelectronic Devices
- Abstract
- 9.1 Introduction to Optoelectronic Devices
- 9.1.1 Salient Applications
- 9.1.2 Optoelectronic Semiconductor Devices
- 9.2 Optical Properties
- 9.2.1 Current and Voltage Characteristics of an Illuminated Junction
- 9.3 Solar Cells
- 9.3.1 Working Principle
- 9.3.2 Construction and Working
- 9.4 Factors Affecting the Efficiency of Solar Cells
- 9.4.1 Effect of Energy Gaps
- 9.4.2 Effect of Absorber
- 9.4.3 Effect of Diffusion Length
- 9.5 Solar Cell Fabrication and Materials
- 9.5.1 Advantages and Limitations of Solar Cells
- 9.5.2 Applications of Solar Cells
- 9.5.3 Importance of Fill Factor in Design of Solar Cell
- 9.6 Photodetectors
- 9.6.1 Working Principle
- 9.6.2 Requirements of a Good Photodetector
- 9.6.3 Method to Achieve a Fast Responding Speed
- 9.7 Different Types of Photodetectors
- 9.7.1 Construction of a p-i-n Photodetector
- 9.7.2 Construction of a Silicon Heterointerface Photodetector (SHIP)
- 9.7.3 Photoconductive Detector
- 9.7.4 Choice of Materials for Photodetectors
- 9.8 Light Emitting Diodes
- 9.8.1 Construction and Working of LED
- 9.8.2 Construction of a LED for Fibre-Optic System
- 9.8.3 Advantages, Applications and Specifications of LEDs
- 9.8.4 Light Emitting Materials
- 9.8.5 A New Generation LED: Gallium Nitride Based Light Emitting Diodes [2]
- 9.9 Semiconductor Lasers
- 9.9.1 Classification of Lasers
- 9.9.2 Merits of Semiconductor Lasers
- 9.9.3 Characteristics and Working
- 9.9.4 Properties of Laser Light
- 9.9.5 Laser Applications
- 9.9.6 Materials for Semiconductor Lasers
- 9.9.7 Homojunction Laser and Hetero-Junction Laser
- 9.10 Laser Diode
- 9.11 Light Dependent Resistors (LDRs)
- 9.12 Overlight Detector
- 9.13 Phototransistor
- 9.13.1 Differences between Phototransistor and Photodiode
- 9.14 Solved Examples
- Review Questions
- Objective Questions
- Answers
- References
- Part IV BJT and FET Transistors,and Power Devices
- 10 Bipolar Junction Transistors
- Abstract
- 10.1 Introduction
- 10.1.1 Types of Transistors
- 10.2 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
- 10.2.1 Construction of BJT
- 10.3 Fundamentals of BJT Operation
- 10.3.1 Transistor Biasing
- 10.3.2 Transistor Currents
- 10.4 Transistor Circuit Configurations and Their Characteristics
- 10.4.1 Common-Base (CB) Characteristics
- 10.4.2 Common-Emitter (CE) Configuration
- 10.5 Comparison Between CB, CE and CC Configurations
- 10.6 Amplification with BJTs
- 10.6.1 Amplification with CB Configuration
- 10.6.2 Amplification with CE Configuration
- 10.6.3 Amplification with CC Configuration
- 10.6.4 Phase Reversal in Amplifiers
- 10.7 BJT Fabrication
- 10.7.1 Diffused Junction Transistors
- 10.8 Solved Examples
- Review Questions
- Numerical Problems
- Objective Questions
- Answers
- Reference
- 11 Metal Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors, MOS Transistors, and Charge Coupled Device
- Abstract
- 11.1 Introduction
- 11.2 Field-Effect Transistor (FET)
- 11.2.1 Applications of FETs
- 11.3 Metal-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors (MESFET)
- 11.4 Basic Construction of MESFETs
- 11.4.1 Basic Types of MESFETs
- 11.5 High Frequency Performance
- 11.6 Models for I-V Characteristics of Short Channel MESFET
- 11.7 Operation of MESFET
- 11.8 Construction of MESFET Structure
- 11.9 Insulated-Gate Field-Effect Transistor (IGFET)
- 11.10 MOSFET
- 11.10.1 Basic Types of MOSFETs
- 11.11 Construction of MOSFET
- 11.12 Operating Principle and I-V Characteristics of Enhancement Type n-Channel MOSFET
- 11.13 p-Channel Enhancement MOSFET (PMOS)
- 11.13.1 Characteristics
- 11.13.2 Symbols for Enhancement MOSFET
- 11.14 Depletion Type MOSFET
- 11.14.1 Operation of n-Channel Depletion MOSFET
- 11.14.2 Depletion Mode of Operation
- 11.14.3 Enhancement Mode of Operation
- 11.14.4 Characteristics of n-Channel Depletion MOSFET
- 11.14.5 p-channel Depletion MOSFET and Its Characteristics
- 11.15 Symbols of Depletion MOSFET
- 11.16 Comparison Between n-channel and p-channel MOSFET
- 11.17 Comparison Between DMOSFETs and EMOSFETs
- 11.18 Comparison Between FETs and BJTs
- 11.19 Short-Channel Effects
- 11.20 A Charge Coupled Device
- 11.20.1 Operation
- 11.20.2 Salient Uses
- 11.21 Solved Examples
- Review Questions
- Objective Questions
- Answers
- References
- 12 Power Semiconductor Devices
- Abstract
- 12.1 Introduction
- 12.1.1 Different Types of Power Semiconducting Devices
- 12.1.2 Four Layer Devices
- 12.2 P-N-P-N Diode
- 12.2.1 Conduction Mechanisms
- 12.2.2 The Two-Transistor Analogy
- 12.2.3 Variation of alpha with Injection
- 12.2.4 Current Transport Mechanism in Forward-Blocking State of P-N-P-N Diode
- 12.2.5 Current Transport Mechanism in Forward Conducting State of P-N-P-N Diode
- 12.2.6 Triggering Mechanisms
- 12.3 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
- 12.3.1 Biasing of SCR
- 12.3.2 Operation of SCR
- 12.3.3 Firing (or Triggering) of an SCR
- 12.3.4 Turning OFF of SCR
- 12.4 Silicon Controlled Switch (SCS)
- 12.4.1 Mechanism
- 12.4.2 Applications
- 12.5 Applications of SCR
- 12.5.1 Half-Wave Power Control
- 12.5.2 Full-Wave Power Control
- 12.6 Bilateral Devices
- 12.7 Diac
- 12.7.1 Working
- 12.7.2 V-I Characteristics
- 12.7.3 Applications
- 12.8 Triac
- 12.8.1 Construction
- 12.8.2 Working
- 12.8.3 V-I Characteristics
- 12.8.4 Applications
- 12.9 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)
- 12.9.1 Construction
- 12.9.2 Characteristics
- 12.9.3 Advantageous Features of IGBT
- 12.10 High Frequency Thyristors
- 12.10.1 Silion Carbide Thyristors
- 12.10.2 Sidac
- 12.11 Solved Examples
- Review Questions
- Objective Questions
- Answers
- Part V Fabrication Techniques
- 13 Semiconductor Growth Techniques and Device Fabrication
- Abstract
- 13.1 Introduction
- 13.2 Production of Element Form of Silicon (Si)
- 13.3 Semiconductor Bulk and Thin Films Growth Technologies
- 13.4 Semiconductor Crystal Growth
- 13.4.1 Bridgman Method
- 13.4.2 Czochralski Method
- 13.4.3 Float Zone Method
- 13.5 Processing of Semiconducting Materials
- 13.5.1 Zone Refining Process
- 13.5.2 Zone Refining Apparatus
- 13.6 Semiconductors Fabrication Technology [1]
- 13.6.1 Microelectronic Circuit Construction [1]
- 13.6.2 Thin Film Circuit Fabrication
- 13.7 Manufacturing of Wafers [1]
- 13.8 Ion-Implantation
- 13.9 Lithography
- 13.9.1 Photoresists
- 13.9.2 Photolithography
- 13.10 Epitaxy
- 13.10.1 Vapour Phase Epitaxy
- 13.10.2 Liquid Phase Epitaxy
- 13.10.3 Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE)
- 13.11 Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD)
- 13.12 Sputtering
- 13.13 Masking
- 13.14 Etching
- 13.15 Metal Deposition Techniques
- 13.16 Fabrication Techniques of P--N Junction
- 13.16.1 Grown Junction Diode
- 13.16.2 Alloy Type (or Fused) Junction
- 13.16.3 Diffused Junction
- 13.16.4 Epitaxial Growth (or Planar Diffused) Junction (Fig. 13.12)
- 13.16.5 Point Contact Junction (Fig. 13.13)
- 13.17 Summary of the Fabrication of a Semiconductor P--N Junction
- 13.18 Transistor Manufacturing Processes
- 13.19 Solved Examples
- Review Questions
- Objective Questions
- Answers
- References
- Part VI Special Purpose and Nano-StructuredSemiconductors, and Recent Advances
- 14 Special Semiconducting Materials in Vivid Fields (for Thermoelectrics, Integrated Circuits, Photocatalytics, Spintronic Devices, etc.), Plasmonic Solar Cell, and Photonics
- Abstract
- 14.1 Semiconductor Nanoparticles in Solar Cell Construction
- 14.2 Three-Dimensional (3D) Semiconductor Solar Cells
- 14.3 Semiconductor (ZnS) as Optical Material Applications [1--6]
- 14.4 Scope of ZnS Nanoparticles Semiconductor [7--20]
- 14.5 Semiconductors in Thermoelectric (TE) Applications [21]
- 14.6 Semiconductors as High-ZT Thermoelectric Materials [22]
- 14.6.1 Chalcogenides and Pentatellurides: The Complex Inorganic Structures [21]
- 14.6.2 Skutterudutes: The Crystal Structures with ``Rattlers'' [21]
- 14.6.3 Oxide Thermoelectrics [22]
- 14.7 Semiconducting Materials for Integrated Circuits [23]
- 14.7.1 Silicon Carbide (SiC) for High Temperature ICs [25]
- 14.7.2 Gallium Nitride (GaN) [26]
- 14.7.3 Indium Phosphide (InP) [27]
- 14.7.4 Silicon Germanium (SiGe) [28]
- 14.7.5 Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) [29]
- 14.7.6 Comparative Study of Different Semiconducting Materials for Integrated Circuits
- 14.8 Semiconductor Photocatalytic Materials [30]
- 14.8.1 ZnO Semiconductor as Photocatalytic Material [31]
- 14.8.2 Cu2O Semiconductor as Photocatalytic Material [32]
- 14.8.3 Iron Oxides Semiconductor as Photocatalytic Material [33]
- 14.8.4 Sulfides Semiconductor as Photocatalytic Material
- 14.8.5 Semiconductor Chalcogenide as Photocatalytic Material [34]
- 14.8.6 Bismuth Oxyhalides Semiconductors as Photocatalytic Material [35]
- 14.9 Transparent Thin Film Transistors [36]
- 14.9.1 Advances in Transparent Oxide Semiconductor Based Transistors [37]
- 14.10 Semiconductor Based Spintronic Devices [38]
- 14.10.1 GaAs Spin---Charge Converter [39]
- 14.11 Heusler Alloy Search for the New Spintronic Materials [40]
- 14.11.1 Spin Injection Materials [41]
- 14.11.2 Spin Transport in Semiconductors and Their Nanostructures [41]
- 14.11.3 Graphene, a Challenge to Semiconductors [41]
- 14.12 Plasmonic Solar Cells
- 14.12.1 Nonlinear Plasmonic Antennas
- 14.12.2 Scope and Applications of Plasmonic Solar Cells
- 14.13 Photonic Materials
- 14.13.1 Need of Photonics Instead of Electronics
- 14.14 Possible Applications of Photonic Materials [43]
- 14.14.1 Photonic Processor (Fig. 14.4)
- 14.14.2 Photonic Crystals [44]
- 14.14.3 Photonic Integrated Circuits
- 14.14.4 The Future of Photonics [46]
- 14.15 Where Photovoltaic Meets Microelectronics [47]
- 14.16 Solved Examples
- Review Questions
- References
- 15 Nano-Structured Semiconducting Materials and Devices
- Abstract
- 15.1 Surface Science of Free Standing Semiconductor Nanowires [1]
- 15.2 Application of Semiconductor as Nanowires Sheathed Inside Nanotubes: Manipulation, Properties and Applications [2]
- 15.3 Copper Phthalocyanine Nanocrystals Embedded into Polymer Host: Preparation and Structural Characterization [3]
- 15.4 Electrical Nanogap Devices for Biosensing [4]
- 15.5 Nanoparticle-Based Plasmonic Organic Photovoltaic Devices [5]
- 15.6 Nanoscale Semiconductor ``X'' on Substrate ``Y''---Processes, Devices, and Applications [6]
- 15.6.1 Introduction
- 15.6.2 Large-Scale Nanowire-Array XoY [6]
- 15.6.3 Artificial Electronic Skin [6]
- 15.7 Recent Advances in Semiconductor Nanowire Heterostructures [7]
- 15.8 Synthesis, Assembly and Applications of Semiconductor Nanomembranes [8]
- 15.9 Inorganic Nanomembranes [8]
- 15.10 III-V Compound Semiconductor Nanostructures on Silicon: Epitaxial Growth, Properties, and Applications in Light Emitting Diodes and Lasers [9]
- 15.11 Nanostructured Tin Dioxide Materials for Gas Sensor Applications [10]
- 15.12 Quantum Transport in Semiconductor Nanostructures [11]
- 15.13 Photonic Switching Devices Based on Semiconductor Nanostructures [12]
- 15.14 Zinc Oxide Nanostructures: Growth, Properties and Applications [13]
- 15.15 Recent Trends on Nanostructures Based Solar Energy Applications: A Review [14]
- 15.16 Design, Fabrication, and Modification of Nanostructured Semiconductor Materials for Environmental and Energy Applications [15]
- 15.17 Application of Semiconductor and Metal Nanostructures in Biology and Medicine [16]
- 15.18 Semiconductor Nanocrystals [16]
- 15.19 Metal/Semiconductor Hybrid Nanostructures for Plasmon-Enhanced Applications [17]
- 15.19.1 Semiconductor Nanostructures
- 15.20 Application of Nd:Yag Laser in Semiconductors' Nanotechnology [18]
- 15.21 Inorganic Semiconductor Nanostructures and Their Field-Emission Applications [19]
- 15.22 Benchmarking Nanotechnology for High-Performance and Low-Power Logic Transistor Applications [20]
- 15.23 Nanomaterials for Solar Energy Conversion [21]
- References
- 16 Recent Advances in Semiconducting Materials and Devices
- Abstract
- 16.1 Semiconductor Disk Lasers: Recent Advances in Generation of Yellow-Orange and Mid-IR Radiation [1]
- 16.1.1 Introduction
- 16.1.2 Cavity Designs
- 16.1.3 Thermal Management of SDLs
- 16.1.4 Wavelength Coverage
- 16.2 High-Power Yellow-Orange SDLS Based on Dilute Nitride Gain Mirrors [1]
- 16.3 GaSb-Based SDLs for 2--3 mu m Wavelength Range [1]
- 16.3.1 Continuous Wave GaSb Disk Laser
- 16.3.2 Femtosecond Pulse Generation
- 16.3.3 Future Outlook
- 16.4 Recent Advances in Optically Pumped Semiconductor Lasers [2]
- 16.4.1 Laser Diodes
- 16.5 Optimization and Simplification of Polymerefullerene Solar Cells Through Polymer and Active Layer Design [3]
- 16.6 Polymer Semiconductor Crystals [4]
- 16.7 Graphene for Radio Frequency Electronics [5]
- 16.8 Green and Biodegradable Electronics [6]
- 16.9 Modern Plastic Solar Cells: Materials, Mechanisms and Modeling [7]
- 16.10 Miniature Wire-Shaped Solar Cells, Electrochemical Capacitors and Lithium-Ion Batteries [8]
- 16.10.1 Miniature Inorganic Solar Cells
- 16.11 Skin-Inspired Electronic Devices [9]
- 16.12 Recent Advances in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells: From Photoanodes, Sensitizers and Electrolytes to Counter Electrodes [10]
- 16.13 Investigation of the Optical Absorption of a--Si:H Solar Cells on Micro-and Nano-Textured Surfaces [11]
- 16.14 POSFET Tactile Sensing Arrays Using CMOS Technology [12]
- 16.14.1 Working Principle of a POSFET Touch Sensing Device
- 16.15 Oxide Semiconductor Thin-Film Transistors: A Review [13]
- 16.15.1 Amorphous Oxide Semiconductor [13]
- 16.16 Wide Band Gap Semiconductor Devices for Power Electronics [14]
- 16.16.1 Introduction
- 16.17 SiC Power Devices [14]
- 16.18 GaN Power Devices [14]
- 16.18.1 GaN HEMT [14]
- 16.18.2 New Generation of Power Devices
- 16.19 Heterogeneous Photocatalysis: Recent Advances and Applications [16]
- 16.20 New Semiconductor Materials for Magnetoelectronics at Room Temperature [17]
- 16.20.1 Materials and Methods [17]
- 16.20.2 Alloy of II--VI Semiconductors with Magnetic Materials [17]
- 16.20.3 Alloys of III--V Semiconductors with Ferromagnetic Properties [17]
- 16.21 Tunable Left-Handed Metameterial Based on Electro-Rheological Fluids [18]
- 16.21.1 The Left-Handed Dendritic Model [18]
- References
- Appendix
- Glossary
- References
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