Analog Devices and Circuits 1
Analog Devices
1st Edition
Published on 22. November 2023
272 pages
978-1-394-25546-7 (ISBN)
Description
At the end of the Second World War, a new technological trend was born: integrated electronics. This trend relied on the enormous rise of integrable electronic devices.
Analog Devices and Circuits is composed of two volumes: the first deals with analog components, and the second with associated analog circuits. The goal here is not to create an overly comprehensive analysis, but rather to break it down into smaller sections, thus highlighting the complexity and breadth of the field.
This first volume, after a brief history, describes the two main devices, namely bipolar transistors and MOS, with particular importance given to the modeling aspect. In doing so, we deal with new devices dedicated to radio frequency, which touches on nanoelectronics. We will also address some of the notions related to quantum mechanics. Finally, Monte Carlo methods, by essence statistics, will be introduced, which have become more and more important since the middle of the twentieth century.
The second volume deals with the circuits that "use" the analog components that were introduced in Volume 1. Here, a particular emphasis is placed on the main circuit: the operational amplifier.
Analog Devices and Circuits is composed of two volumes: the first deals with analog components, and the second with associated analog circuits. The goal here is not to create an overly comprehensive analysis, but rather to break it down into smaller sections, thus highlighting the complexity and breadth of the field.
This first volume, after a brief history, describes the two main devices, namely bipolar transistors and MOS, with particular importance given to the modeling aspect. In doing so, we deal with new devices dedicated to radio frequency, which touches on nanoelectronics. We will also address some of the notions related to quantum mechanics. Finally, Monte Carlo methods, by essence statistics, will be introduced, which have become more and more important since the middle of the twentieth century.
The second volume deals with the circuits that "use" the analog components that were introduced in Volume 1. Here, a particular emphasis is placed on the main circuit: the operational amplifier.
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12/2023
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Person
Christian Gontrand is a Professor at INL/INSA Lyon, France, focusing on 3D circuits. He was formerly a Head Professor in the Smart Power Integration team at Laboratoire Ampère and had technical charge of the CIMIRLY from 1988 to 1996. His current research focuses on Artificial Intelligence applied to health.
Content
Preface ix
Introduction xiii
Chapter 1 Bipolar Junction Transistor 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.1.1 A schematic technological embodiment of an integrated bipolar junction transistor 2
1.2 Transistor effect 4
1.2.1 Flows and currents 5
1.2.2 Compromises for bipolar junction transistor 6
1.2.3 Configurations and associated current gains 7
1.3 Bipolar junction transistor: some calculations 9
1.3.1 Various modes of operation 15
1.4 The NPN transistor; Ebers-Moll model (1954: Jewell James Ebers and John L Moll) 16
1.4.1 Gummel curves 18
1.4.2 Consideration of second-order effects for the static model 19
1.4.3 Early curves 20
1.4.4 Base width modulation; Early effect 20
1.4.5 Ebers-Moll model wide signals 22
1.4.6 Current gain 26
1.5 Simple bipolar junction transistor model 27
1.6 Network of static characteristics of the bipolar junction transistor 27
1.6.1 Common emitter configuration 31
1.6.2 Common emitter configuration with emitter degeneration 34
1.7 Some applications 35
1.7.1 Current mirrors 35
1.7.2 Differential pair 38
1.7.3 Output stage 41
1.8 Application: operational amplifier 43
1.9 BiCMOS 43
Chapter 2 Mosfet 45
2.1 Introduction 45
2.1.1 Base structure 45
2.1.2 Working principle 46
2.2 MOS capability: electric model and curve C(V) 47
2.3 Different types of MOS transistors 49
2.4 A CMOS technological process 50
2.5 Electric modeling of the NMOS enhancement transistor 52
2.6 Off state 52
2.7 Linear or ohmic or unsaturated regime 52
2.7.1 Saturation regime 53
2.7.2 High saturation velocity 53
2.7.3 Static characteristics 54
2.8 Applications 56
2.8.1 Digital inverter 56
2.8.2 Active resistor 58
2.8.3 MOS Single current mirror 59
2.8.4 MOS differential amplifier 60
2.9 Explained technological steps of a CMOS 60
Chapter 3 Devices Dedicated to Radio Frequency: Toward Nanoelectronics 75
3.1 Introduction 75
3.2 Model for HBT SiGeC and device structure 76
3.2.1 Modeling the drift-diffusion equation 76
3.3 MOS of the future? 83
3.3.1 Introduction 83
3.3.2 Dgmos 84
3.3.3 Transport in nanoscale MOSFETs 85
3.3.4 Numerical methods 87
3.4 Conclusion 111
3.5 MATLAB use 112
3.5.1 Computer-aided modelling and simulations: synopsis 112
3.5.2 Calculation of the second elementary member rho 1 139
3.6 Conclusion 185
Appendix 187
References 211
Index 213
Introduction xiii
Chapter 1 Bipolar Junction Transistor 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.1.1 A schematic technological embodiment of an integrated bipolar junction transistor 2
1.2 Transistor effect 4
1.2.1 Flows and currents 5
1.2.2 Compromises for bipolar junction transistor 6
1.2.3 Configurations and associated current gains 7
1.3 Bipolar junction transistor: some calculations 9
1.3.1 Various modes of operation 15
1.4 The NPN transistor; Ebers-Moll model (1954: Jewell James Ebers and John L Moll) 16
1.4.1 Gummel curves 18
1.4.2 Consideration of second-order effects for the static model 19
1.4.3 Early curves 20
1.4.4 Base width modulation; Early effect 20
1.4.5 Ebers-Moll model wide signals 22
1.4.6 Current gain 26
1.5 Simple bipolar junction transistor model 27
1.6 Network of static characteristics of the bipolar junction transistor 27
1.6.1 Common emitter configuration 31
1.6.2 Common emitter configuration with emitter degeneration 34
1.7 Some applications 35
1.7.1 Current mirrors 35
1.7.2 Differential pair 38
1.7.3 Output stage 41
1.8 Application: operational amplifier 43
1.9 BiCMOS 43
Chapter 2 Mosfet 45
2.1 Introduction 45
2.1.1 Base structure 45
2.1.2 Working principle 46
2.2 MOS capability: electric model and curve C(V) 47
2.3 Different types of MOS transistors 49
2.4 A CMOS technological process 50
2.5 Electric modeling of the NMOS enhancement transistor 52
2.6 Off state 52
2.7 Linear or ohmic or unsaturated regime 52
2.7.1 Saturation regime 53
2.7.2 High saturation velocity 53
2.7.3 Static characteristics 54
2.8 Applications 56
2.8.1 Digital inverter 56
2.8.2 Active resistor 58
2.8.3 MOS Single current mirror 59
2.8.4 MOS differential amplifier 60
2.9 Explained technological steps of a CMOS 60
Chapter 3 Devices Dedicated to Radio Frequency: Toward Nanoelectronics 75
3.1 Introduction 75
3.2 Model for HBT SiGeC and device structure 76
3.2.1 Modeling the drift-diffusion equation 76
3.3 MOS of the future? 83
3.3.1 Introduction 83
3.3.2 Dgmos 84
3.3.3 Transport in nanoscale MOSFETs 85
3.3.4 Numerical methods 87
3.4 Conclusion 111
3.5 MATLAB use 112
3.5.1 Computer-aided modelling and simulations: synopsis 112
3.5.2 Calculation of the second elementary member rho 1 139
3.6 Conclusion 185
Appendix 187
References 211
Index 213
Introduction
I.1. Synoptic history of microelectronics
I.1.1. Electricity: Ampere, Coulomb, Faraday, Gauss, Henry, Kirchkoff, Maxwell and Ohm
- - 1826: Ohm's law (G.S. Ohm);
- - 1837: S. Morse (New York) Telegraph: binary signals: dot-dash:
- - W. Thomson and C. Wheastone;
- - 1865: J.C. Maxwell Electromagnetism:
- - H. Hertz Production of electromagnetic waves in the laboratory;
- - 1876: A.G. Bell Telephone;
- - 1877: T. Edison Phonograph (disc: First ROM);
- - 1996: G. Marconi Wireless phone: radio waves (~ km).
I.1.2. Vaccum tube
- - 1895: H.A. Lorentz Electron (< Greek: amber); discrete charges;
- - 1897: J.J. Thomson Experiment Existence of electrons:
- - K. Braun: cathode ray tube; first electron tube;
- - 1904: A. Fleming Invention of the diode (tube) detector;
- - 1905: A. Einstein, H.A. Lorentz, H. Poincaré Special relativity: intrinsic to electromagnetism;
- - 1906: G.W. Pickard Silicon crystal (Si) detector with whiskers:
- - poor reliability because of spikes;
- - 1906: L. de Forest Audion triode (diode + gate: ancestor of the transistor): first controlled source.
Initial applications
- - 1884: A.I.E.E: American Institute of Electrical Engineers;
- - 1906: A.I.E.E + I.R.E I.E.E.E: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers;
- - 1911: the triode is reliable (cathode covered with an oxide layer + very high vacuum):
- - telephony and radiocommunications;
- - 1917: creation of the Institute of Radio Engineers (I.R.E.).
Diodes and triodes
- - 1912: E.H. Armstrong: feedback amplifier, cascading:
- - L. de Forest: oscillator;
- - 1917: E.H. Armstrong: heterodyne (see frequency translation);
- - 1918: W. Eccles - F.W. Jordan: multivibrators:
- - positive reaction, cascade amp + heterodyne Detection of "weak signals";
- - 1928: J.E. Lilienfeld: patents on the bases of field-effect transistors;
- - 1930: E.H. Armstrong: frequency modulation (FM), before amplitude modulation (AM);
- - 1930: B&W TV (black and white);
- - 1942: Radar (RAdio Detection and Ranging):
- - microwaves: Klystron, magnetron, etc.
I.1.3. Computers (transistors - trans-resistors - integrated circuits - IC)
- - 1633: W. Schickard: MECHANICAL COMPUTER (wheeled, with different number of spokes);
- - 1643: B. Pascal (see Pascaline);
- - 1687: G.W. Leibnitz;
- - 1883: C. Babbage: "The Analytical Machine":
- - perforated cards (see 1853; Jacquard): recorded programs;
- - 1930: Mark I: H. Aiken (Harvard: 1930): automatic computer, with programmed sequences: ~17 m*3;
- - 1936: A. Turing: general principles of automatic state machines;
- - 1945: IBM: Industrial Business Machines; the 603: commercialized (701 in 1952, 704 in 1954 (144 kb memory));
- - 1945: J. Von Neumann: theory on the architecture of automatic computers;
- - 1946: J.P. Eckert, J. Mauchly (Pennsylvania):
- - E.N.I.A.C (Electronical Numerical Integration and Computer),
- - army ballistic; J. Von Neumann binary,
- - 40 × 2,300 tubes (10 m × 13 m space);
- - 1947: IBM 604: 4,000 units in 12 years;
- - 1948: the beginning of the computer industry; advent of the transistor (trans(RES)istor);
- - 1951: UNIVAC 1: the first commercial computer;
- - 1954: IBM 650: first-generation digital computers:
- - V. Bush (Massachusetts Institute of Technology); differential Analyzer (first electromechanical analog computer),
- - operational amplifier: analog electronics;
- - 1955: first computer network: SABRE (created for American Airlines):
- - W. Shockley left Ma Bell to found his own company in Palo Alto, California, the first in what would become Silicon Valley;
- - 1956: S. Cray: founded Control Data Corporations and later Cray Computers:
- - semiconductor computers;
- - 1957: J. Backus: the first "superior" programming language: FORTRAN (Formula Translation);
- - 1959: IBM 5090/7094: second generation:
- - PDP 1: the first interactive computer of the Digital Equipment Corporation,
- - PDP8 (1965): first minicomputer in industry;
- - 1964 IBM 360; with hybrid integrated circuits (ICs) with discrete transistors on a (bulk) substrate:
- - Burroughs Control DATA, UNIVAC;
- - 1970: IBM 370: third generation;
- - 1980: fourth generation (CI very large scale integration (VLSI)):
- - several tens of millions of operations/seconds,
- - new architectures (vector, pipeline);
- - 2010: Teles Hexaflop Computers.
I.1.4. Analysis and theory
It includes circuit analysis and synthesis techniques.
- - BELL & MIT;
- - H. Bode, H. Nyquist: feedback amplifiers:
- - C.E. Shannon, V.A. Kotelnikov, A. Spataru: information theory (data transmission),
- - for example, MIC: Reeves pulse code modulation;
- - C.E. Shannon (1937) Boolean algebra Analysis and design of switching circuits;
- - A. Turing: universal computer concept;
- - M.V. Wilkes: microprogramming;
- - J.R. Raggazini, L.A. Zadeh: sampled data systems Digital command control.
I.1.5. Transistor
- - 1930-1945: study of the electromagnetic properties of semiconductors and metals:
- - Block, Davidov, Lark, Horovitz, Mott, Schottcky, Slater, Summerfield, Vanvleck, Wigner, Wilson, Van der Ziel, Van Vliet;
- - End of 1947 (J. Bardeen, W. Brattain, W. Shockley): the bipolar transistor and BELL telephone;
- - 1950: Team (Bell labs): AT&T Research Branch:
- - drawing (Czocralski method) ultrapure single crystals of germanium (Ge);
- - 1951: commercial production of transistors:
- - ATT provides patent licenses for transistor manufacturing RCA Raytheon, General Electric, Westinghouse, Western Electric (ATT's manufacturing arm);
- - 1954: Texas Instrument (<Teal): production of silicon transistors: Si;
- - 1956: (J. Bardeen, W. Brattain, W. Schockley): Nobel Prize;
- - 1975: ESAKI: band gap heterojunction engineering.
I.1.6. Integrated circuits
- - 1958/59: J. Kilby, Texas Instruments; IRE "Semiconductor Circuit" Congress (multivibrator oscillators, Si or Ge capacitors):
- - R.N. Noyce (Fairchild: future founder of Intel),
- - Si monolithic circuit; several devices; resistors, capacitors, PN junction-insulation: Lehovec patent: Prague Electric Company,
- - G. Moore broadcast areas;
- - 1958: J. Hoerni (Fairchild): diffused transistors (base and emitter diffused in the collector):
- - passivation of junctions by oxide layer,
- - lithographing and etching,
- - batch processing (on the same wafer) several chips (dies) CI sold by Texas and Fairchild.
I.1.7. Field-effect transistor
- - 1951: W. Schockley; JFET (junction field effect transistor):
- - Pb: unstable surface (electric charge carrier trap);
- - 1958: S. Teszner (France): first JFET manufactured, thanks to the planar process (replaced mesas - trays - and passivation: SiO2);
- - 1960: M. Atalla, D. Kahng (Bell Labs):
- - first MOS (metal oxide-semiconductor), p-type: PMOS;
- - 1962: first CMOS inverter; invention of CMOS technology by F. Wanlass, at Fairchild, technology distinguished by its low static consumption;
- - 1962: S. Hofstein, F. Heiman (RCA) patent for the manufacture of MOS ICs (production of the first commercial field-effect transistors);
- - 1963: CMOS: Complementary MOS: NMOS and PMOS;
- - 1970: BiCMOS: CMOS compatible bipolar; for example, polycrystalline emitter of the NPN and manufactured at the same time as the polysilicon gate of the PMOS.
Figure I.1. First integrated circuit (Noyce)
I.1.7.1. 1951: Discrete transistors, by chip
- - 1960: Small-scale integration (100 devices);
- - 1966: medium-scale integration (100 to 1,000 devices);
- - 1969: large-scale integration (>1,000 devices);
- - 1975: very large scale integration (VLSI) (>10,000 devices);
- - 1986: ultra large scale integration (ULSI) (>1,000,000 devices);
- - 2010: to 3D.
I.1.8. Digital integrated circuits
- - 1961: J.L. Buie: TTL: transistor-coupled transistor logic (pacific semiconductor, ? TRW):
- - TTL: transistor-transistor...
