Practical Scanning Electron Microscopy
Electron and Ion Microprobe Analysis
Published on 6. December 2012
XVIII, 582 pages
978-1-4613-4422-3 (ISBN)
Description
In the spring of 1963, a well-known research institute made a market survey to assess how many scanning electron microscopes might be sold in the United States. They predicted that three to five might be sold in the first year a commercial SEM was available, and that ten instruments would saturate the marketplace. In 1964, the Cambridge Instruments Stereoscan was introduced into the United States and, in the following decade, over 1200 scanning electron microscopes were sold in the U. S. alone, representing an investment conservatively estimated at $50,000- $100,000 each. Why were the market surveyers wrongil Perhaps because they asked the wrong persons, such as electron microscopists who were using the highly developed transmission electron microscopes of the day, with resolutions from 5-10 A. These scientists could see little application for a microscope that was useful for looking at surfaces with a resolution of only (then) about 200 A. Since that time, many scientists have learned to appreciate that information content in an image may be of more importance than resolution per se. The SEM, with its large depth of field and easily that often require little or no sample prepara interpreted images of samples tion for viewing, is capable of providing significant information about rough samples at magnifications ranging from 50 X to 100,000 X. This range overlaps considerably with the light microscope at the low end, and with the electron microscope at the high end.
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Joseph I. Goldstein | H. Yakowitz
Practical Scanning Electron Microscopy and Electron and Ion Microprobe Analysis
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04/1975
Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers
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Content
I Introduction.- I. Evolution of the Scanning Electron Microscope.- II. Evolution of the Electron Probe Microanalyzer.- III. Combination SEM-EPMA.- IV. Outline and Purpose of This Book.- References.- Bibliography of Texts and Monographs in SEM and EPMA.- II Electron Optics.- I. Electron Guns.- II. Electron Lenses.- III. Electron Probe Diameter dp vs. Electron Probe Current i.- IV. Depth of Field.- References.- III Electron Beam-Specimen Interaction.- I. Electron Scattering in Solids.- II. Electron Range and Spatial Distribution of the Primary Electron Beam.- III. Emitted Electrons-Backscattered Electrons.- IV. Emitted Electrons-Low-Energy Electrons.- V. X-Rays.- VI. Auger Electrons.- VII. Summary-Range and Spatial Resolution.- References.- IV Image Formation in the Scanning Electron Microscope.- I. The SEM Imaging Process.- II. Signal Detectors.- III. Contrast Formation.- IV. Signal Characteristics and Image Quality.- V. Resolution Limitations in the SEM.- VI. Signal Processing.- VII. Image Defects.- VIII. Electron Penetration Effects in Images.- References.- V Contrast Mechanisms of Special Interest In Materials Science.- I. Introduction.- II. Electron Channeling Contrast.- III. Magnetic Contrast in the SEM.- IV. Voltage Contrast.- V. Electron-Beam-Induced Current (EBIC).- VI. Cathodoluminescence.- References.- VI Specimen Preparation, Special Techniques, and Applications of the Scanning Electron Microscope.- I. Specimen Preparation for Materials Examination in the SEM.- II. Stereomicroscopy.- III. Dynamic Experiments in the SEM.- IV. Applications of the SEM.- References.- VII X-Ray Spectral Measurement and Interpretation.- I. Introduction.- II. Crystal Spectrometers.- III. Solid State X-Ray Detectors.- IV. A Comparison of Crystal Spectrometers with Solid StateX-Ray Detectors.- V. The Analysis of X-Ray Spectral Data.- References.- VIII Microanalysis of Thin Films and Fine Structure.- I. Introduction.- II. Factors Affecting X-Ray Spatial Resolution.- III. Characterizing the X-Ray-Excited Volume.- IV. Thin-Film Analysis.- V. Particles, Inclusions, and Fine Structures.- References.- IX Methods of Quantitative X-Ray Analysis Used in Electron Probe Microanalysis and Scanning Electron Microscopy.- I. Introduction.- II. The Absorption Factor kA.- III. Atomic Number Correction kZ.- IV. The Characteristic Fluorescence Correction kF.- V. The Continuum Fluorescence Correction.- VI. Summary Discussion of the ZAF Method.- VII. The Empirical Method for Quantitative Analysis.- VIII. Comments on Analysis Involving Elements of Atomic Number of 11 or Less.- IX. Quantitative Analysis with Nonnormal Electron-Beam Incidence.- X. Analysis Involving Special Specimen Geometries.- XI. Discussion.- Appendix. The Analysis of an Iron-Silicon Alloy.- References.- X Computational Schemes for Quantitative X-Ray Analysis: On-Line Analysis with Small Computers.- I. Introduction.- II. Summary of Computational Schemes for Quantitative Analysis.- III. The FRAME Program.- IV. Data Reduction Based on the Hyperbolic Method.- V. Summary.- References.- XI Practical Aspects of X-Ray Microanalysis.- I. Grappling with the Unknown.- II. Specimen Preparation for Quantitative Analysis.- III. Applications Involving Compositional Analysis.- References.- XII Special Techniques in the X-Ray Analysis of Samples.- I. Light Element Analysis.- II. Precision and Sensitivity in X-Ray Analysis.- III. X-Ray Analysis at Interfaces.- IV. Soft X-Ray Emission Spectra.- V. Thin Films.- Appendix. Deconvolution Technique.- References.- XIII Biological Applications: Sample Preparation and Quantitation.- I. Sample Preparation.- II. Analysis.- III. Summary.- References.- XIV Ion Microprobe Mass Analysis.- I. Basic Concepts and Instrumentation.- II. Ion Microscope.- III. Ion Microprobe.- IV. Production of Ions.- V. Sputtering.- VI. Qualitative Analysis.- VII. Quantitative Analysis.- VIII. Dead-Time Losses.- IX. In-Depth Profiling.- X. Applications.- References.
